TCEQ REGULATORY GUIDANCE Small Business and Environmental Assistance Division RG-404 ● February 2011

T E XA S C O MMIS SI O N O N EN V I RO N ME N TA L Q UA LI TY • P O BO X 1 3 0 8 7 • A U ST I N, T X 7 8 7 1 1 – 3 0 8 7 T h e T C E Q i s a n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y e m p l o y e r . T h e a g e n c y d o e s n o t a l l o w d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f r a c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , n a t i o n a l o r i g i n , s e x , d i s a b i l i t y , a g e , s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , o r v e t e r a n s t a t u s . I n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s w i t h D i s a b i l i t i e s A c t , t h i s d o c u m e n t m a y b e r e q u e s t e d i n a l t e r n a t e f o r m a t s b y c o n t a c t i n g t h e T C E Q a t 5 1 2 – 2 3 9 – 0 0 2 8 , f a x 5 1 2 – 2 3 9 – 4 4 8 8 , o r 1 – 8 0 0 – R E L A Y – T X ( T D D ) , o r b y w r i t i n g P O B o x 1 3 0 8 7 , A u s t i n T X 7 8 7 1 1 – 3 0 8 7 . W e a u t h o r i z e y o u t o u s e o r r e p r o d u c e a n y o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n — t h a t i s , a n y m a t e r i a l w e d i d n o t o b t a i n f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s . P l e a s e a c k n o w l e d g e t h e T C E Q a s y o u r s o u r c e . P r i n t e d o n r e c y c l e d p a p e r .

Surface Coating Facilities A Guide for Obtaining Air Authorization in Texas

Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2

Which Air Authorization Applies to You? ………………………………………………………………………………….. 2 De Minimis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Permit by Rule …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3 New Source Review Permit………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7 Title V Federal Operating Permit……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Other Requirements ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8 General Air Quality Rules (30 TAC 101) …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8 Nonattainment and Near-Nonattainment Areas (30 TAC 115) ……………………………………………………………….. 9 New Source Performance Standards (40 CFR, Part 60) ………………………………………………………………………. 10 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (40 CFR, Part 63) ………………………………………. 10

Common Air Violations for Surface Coaters ……………………………………………………………………………. 11

For More Information …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11

Appendix A: Common Permits by Rule for Surface Coating Facilities …………………………………. 12

Appendix B: Surface Coating Permit by Rule (30 TAC 106.433) ………………………………………….. 13

Appendix C: Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) and Exempt Solvent Content per Gallon of Coating ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 16

Appendix D: Calculating Maximum Hourly and Annual Emission Rates …………………………….. 20

Appendix E: Emission Rate Averaged Over a Five-Hour Period …………………………………………… 24

Appendix F: Potential to Emit ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25

Appendix G: Calculation of Booth or Work-Area and Filter and Face Velocities ……………….. 26

Appendix H: VOC Content Minus Water and Exempt Solvents …………………………………………….. 30

Appendix I: Calculations for Emissions of Products of Combustion from Heaters and Ovens ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33

Appendix J: Examples of Acceptable Stack Designs ……………………………………………………………….. 35

Appendix K: Compliance Worksheet ………………………………………………………………………………………… 36

TCEQ publication RG-404 Surface Coating Facilities: A Guide for Obtaining Air Authorization in Texas

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Introduction This document is tailored to the surface coating industry, excluding auto body shops, and contains general information about air regulations. Surface coaters prepare and coat (paint) items that may be made out of metal, wood, plastic, porcelain, or any of several other materials. Processes associated with cleaning and coating emit air contaminants. As part of its role in protecting public health and the environment, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) requires you to get proper air authorization for these emissions. Under the law, you are required to obtain authorization before you build, modify, or begin operations at your facility.

Even if your site is already in operation, you still need an air authorization. You should begin steps to obtain authorization as soon as you become aware that this regulation applies to you. For more information on how to proceed if you find yourself in this situation, call the Small Business and Local Government Assistance (SBLGA) program at 800-447-2827 for confidential assistance. You can also contact the Air Permits Division at 512-239-1250 for technical assistance.

Which Air Authorization Applies to You? The type of authorization you qualify for will depend on the materials and chemicals you use, the processes that you conduct, and the amount of air contaminants your facility creates. In Texas, you have three options for obtaining authorization to emit air contaminants from your surface coating facility. You must either

• qualify for de minimis status, or • obtain authorization through a

 permit by rule (PBR), or  New Source Review (NSR) permit.

In addition, you may be required to obtain coverage under a Title V Federal Operating Permit if your emissions exceed certain levels. Ultimately, you must decide which type of authorization applies to your business and if it needs to meet any other requirements to comply with state and federal laws.

De Minimis

De minimis sites emit very small amounts of air contaminants. If your site qualifies as de minimis, you do not need to register with the TCEQ. However, you do need to keep records to prove that you meet the de minimis requirements. Even if your site is de minimis, you may have to comply with other state and federal regulations—see “Other Requirements,” on page 8. The rules that explain the de minimis criteria appear at 30 Texas Administrative Code (TAC) Chapter 116, Subchapter B, Division 1, Section 116.119.

There are several ways that you can meet the de minimis criteria. To find out whether you can claim de minimis status:

• Check the De Minimis Facilities or Sources List [30 TAC 116.119(a)(1)].

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Any facility on the De Minimis Facilities or Sources List is considered de minimis by the TCEQ. This list is available online at <www.tceq.texas.gov/goto/de_minimis>.

• Check the Materials and Usage List [30 TAC 116.119(a)(2)(A–F)]. If the total, site-wide use per year of the following materials is below the thresholds listed, the site is considered de minimis:

• cleaning and stripping solvents, 50 gallons per year • coatings (excluding plating materials), 100 gallons per year • dyes, 1,000 pounds per year • bleaches, 1,000 gallons per year • fragrances (excluding odorants), 250 gallons per year • water-based surfactants and detergents, 2,500 gallons per year.

• Review Your Emission Rates and Check the Effects Screening level (ESL) List or Ask for a Case-by-Case Review. There are two additional ways that you can claim de minimis status. You can review the ESL list and emission rate caps [30 TAC 116.119(a)(3)] or ask for a case-by-case review [30 TAC 116.119(a)(4)]. For more information on these options, contact the Air Permits Division at 512-239-1250.

De minimis sites cannot be in violation of any TCEQ rule, permit, order, or statute. If a business is found to be in violation, it will no longer be considered de minimis and must obtain authorization through a PBR or an NSR permit.

Permit by Rule

Many surface coaters obtain authorization by qualifying for a PBR. PBRs have specific, non-negotiable conditions that your business must meet. PBRs are approved more quickly than NSR permits and less documentation is required for approval. It is important that you keep accurate records and documents to verify that you continually meet the conditions of your PBR.

In addition, more than one PBR may apply to your site. For example, you might sandblast an object and then paint it. You would need to obtain authorization under the PBRs both for dry abrasive cleaning and for surface coating. You can find more on surface preparation at the SBLGA’s website, <www.TexasEnviroHelp.org>.

Review 30 TAC Chapter 106 to find all appropriate PBRs that may be applicable to your site. The most common PBRs for surface coating facilities are listed in Appendix A.

Who Can Register Under a PBR?

General Requirements (30 TAC 106.4)

Facilities that are sources of air contaminants may claim a PBR as long as they can meet the general requirements and emission limits in 30 TAC Chapter 106, Subchapter A, Section 106.4 and meet the specific requirements for the PBR that they are claiming. You will need to calculate your air emissions to determine if you meet the conditions

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of a PBR. If you need help with these calculations, review Appendixes C through E. If you use heaters or ovens at your facility, you can reference Appendix I for help determining the emissions from those activities. You can also use the compliance worksheet in Appendix K to help you gather all of the information you will need to get started.

The general air emission limits, explained in 30 TAC Chapter 106, Subchapter A, Section 106.4, are:

• No more than 25 tons per year (sitewide) of: • volatile organic compounds (VOCs), • sulfur dioxide (SO2), • particulate matter (PM10) that is small enough to be inhaled, or • any other air contaminant (including exempt solvents)—except carbon

dioxide, water, nitrogen, methane, ethane, hydrogen, and oxygen. • No more than 250 tons per year (sitewide) of:

• carbon monoxide (CO), or • nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Overview of Requirements for Surface Coating Facilities (30 TAC 106.433)

The PBR for surface coating facilities, found in 30 TAC Chapter 106, Subchapter S, Section 106.433, has more stringent emission limits and requirements than the general requirements in 30 TAC Chapter 106, Subchapter A, Section 106.4. It is important to note that this PBR covers the use of coatings that contain metal pigments, but does not cover the application of molten metals.

The facility must maintain good housekeeping practices, clean up spills promptly, use exhaust fans when in operation, and properly store and dispose of new and used coatings and solvents. If you use ovens to dry or cure paint at your facility, you must either use an electric oven or ensure that the maximum heat input does not exceed 40 million British thermal units per hour. The rule also specifies the appropriate type of fuel that may be used for these ovens.

The specific air emission limits for surface coating operations performed indoors, in a booth, or in an enclosed work area, as explained in 30 TAC 106.433(6), are no more than:

• 6 pounds of VOCs per hour, averaged over a five-hour period (see Appendix E for help with this calculation), and

• 500 pounds of VOCs per week per booth or enclosed work area.

• You must ensure that your VOC emissions do not exceed 13 tons of VOCs per year per booth or enclosed work area. This value comes from the following equation:

500 𝑙𝑏 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘

× 52 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠

𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 ×

1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 2,000 𝑙𝑏

= 13 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑉𝑂𝐶

𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

In addition to the emission limits, enclosed operations must ensure that:

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• all exhaust stacks extend at least 1.5 times the building height above the ground. (See Appendix J for more on stack design.)

• there is a minimum face velocity of 100 feet per minute (ft/min) at the intake opening of each booth or work area,

• the filter velocity does not exceed 250 ft/min. (See Appendix G for face velocity and filter velocity calculation.)

• the emissions of particulate matter from spraying operations are controlled by either a wash-water system or a dry filter system with a 95 percent removal efficiency.

Surface coating operations performed outdoors or in a non-enclosed work area must comply with the same VOC emission limits as enclosed operations (6 lb/hr and 500 lb/week). The VOC limits may be more stringent if the operation sprays coatings with metallic pigments containing chromates, lead, cadmium, selenium, strontium, or cobalt. Review 30 TAC 106.433(7)(B) if this applies to your business. Outdoor spray operations must also ensure that:

• all coating operations are conducted at least 50 feet from the property line and 250 feet from the nearest off-property structure, and that

• the TCEQ has given written site approval before construction.

The site-wide limits from coating and cleanup solvents, explained in 30 TAC 106.433(4), apply to both indoor and outdoor operations. All facilities must ensure that their site-wide emissions are no more than:

• 25 tons per year of VOC and 10 tons per year of exempt solvents, and

• 30 pounds per hour of VOC and 5.0 pounds per hour of exempt solvents.

Exempt solvents, such as acetone and methylene chloride, are defined as those carbon compounds or mixtures of carbon compounds used as solvents that have been excluded from the definition of VOC. The definition of VOC can be found in 40 CFR, Part 51.100.

This is an overview of the rule requirements. You must thoroughly review the PBR, 30 TAC 106.433, to make certain that you understand and comply with all of the emission limits, record-keeping responsibilities, and notification requirements. We have included a copy of the rule in Appendix B for your convenience. If you begin approaching the limits in the PBR, contact the Air Permits Division at 512-239-1250 to discuss your permitting options.

How Do I Obtain Coverage Under a PBR?

Some of the PBRs, including 30 TAC 106.433, require you to register with the TCEQ, while others require no registration. Registration requirements are specified in the rule. If any PBR requires registration, follow these general procedures:

1. Make sure your facility meets the general requirements for claiming the PBRs found in 30 TAC Chapter 106, Subchapter A, Section 106.4. You can complete the PBR Applicability Quick Checklist, Form TCEQ-10150 to help you determine if you

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meet the requirements. The appendixes to this publication will help you with the calculations you will need to complete in order to determine compliance.

2. Make sure your facility meets the conditions of any PBR you intend to claim. Be sure to read the PBR(s) in 30 TAC Chapter 106 before you make this determination. If registration checklists are available for the PBRs you are claiming, it is recommended that you use the checklists to demonstrate compliance with the rule. See Appendix A for registration checklist form numbers.

3. Complete Form TCEQ-10228, “Registration for Permits by Rule (PI-7),” or Form TCEQ-20182, “Certification and Registration for Permits by Rule (PI-7-CERT).”

Should I use a PI-7 or a PI-7-CERT?

The PI-7 and PI-7-CERT forms request administrative and technical information needed by the Air Permits Division to evaluate PBR claims. The PI-7-CERT form also establishes federally enforceable emission limits for individual pollutants. Use caution when setting the emission limit, as the facility may not exceed that limit. If changes occur at a site and the emission limit needs to be updated, you must submit Form TCEQ-10489 (APD-CERT).

An example of a beneficial use of the PI-7-CERT form would be when the potential to emit (PTE) at a facility exceeds major-source thresholds, but the actual emissions from the facility are below the major-source thresholds. The emission limit established under a PI-7-CERT form would allow the site to be considered a “synthetic minor” and would not require a Title V federal operating permit. You can find additional information regarding PTE in Appendix F.

4. Submit the following items for review with your registration form:

• Distance information. Include the distance from the facility’s emission release point to the nearest property line and off-property structure.

• A process flow diagram or process description. Include a step-by-step description of what you do with each material that comes into your business and how the final product moves out the door.

• Emissions data and calculations. Include emission rates for each air contaminant and supporting calculations.

• Equipment specifications. Filter efficiencies, spray-gun specifications and literature, and gun-washer and booth specifications.

• Usage rates of coatings and solvents in gallons per hour and gallons per year.

• Operation schedules. Hours of operation.

• Material Safety Data Sheets. Identify the chemicals used specifically at your site and supply MSDS, technical data sheets, environmental sheets, air quality data sheets, or equivalent supporting documents for all mixtures that contain potential air contaminants.

This information will help permit reviewers understand how your business operates and will help them verify that the emission calculations are correct and that the applicable rules are met.

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5. Pay a registration fee and submit your proof of payment with your registration form. See Form TCEQ-10228 (PI-7) or TCEQ-20182 (PI-7-CERT) to determine the specific fee amount.

Note: You do not need to submit a separate form or pay a separate fee for each PBR. You can apply for multiple PBRs using only one form and paying one fee.

6. Complete Form TCEQ-10400, the TCEQ Core Data Form. If you are a new customer of the TCEQ and have not been issued a regulated-entity number (RN) and customer reference number (CN), you will need to complete this form. If you are an existing customer and have made changes to your customer or site information, you will need to submit an updated form.

Check all applicable PBRs to determine if site approval is required before you begin construction. If no PBR requires site approval from the TCEQ, you may begin construction (or the activity) once the TCEQ has received your application and supporting documentation. However, if any PBR requires written site approval from the TCEQ, do not begin construction until you receive approval in writing. The PBR specific to surface coating, 30 TAC 106.433, requires written site approval from the TCEQ.

New Source Review Permit

If your business cannot qualify for de minimis or a PBR you must obtain an NSR permit. An NSR permit has a more complex application process that is beyond the scope of this document. It is best to contact the Air Permits Division at 512-239-1250 and ask to speak to a coating-permit engineer who can help you determine how to proceed with obtaining proper authorization. Generally, in order to obtain an NSR permit, you will be required to:

• submit the most current version of Form TCEQ-10252 (PI-1), • pay a fee of at least $900 fee, and • submit additional information about your specific facility. You will also have to publish two public notices in a prominent newspaper and post signs (often in more than one language). A public hearing may also be required in order to determine whether you should receive a permit.

Once your application is approved and you have received your permit, you may begin to modify or construct your facility. If you have questions about permitting, or have already started construction without authorization, please call SBLGA at 800-447- 2827.

Title V Federal Operating Permit

Any business classified as a “major source” of air contaminants must obtain a Title V federal operating permit, in addition to a PBR or NSR permit, and comply with additional regulations. A site can be considered major because of the amount of different types of emissions, such as VOCs, NOx, or hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).

In general, sites are considered to be major sources of air contaminants if they have the potential to emit 10 tons per year of a single HAP or 25 tons per year of any

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combination of HAPs. EPA maintains an up-to-date list of HAPs at <www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/orig189.html>.

Additionally, facilities that are located in attainment counties and have the potential to emit 100 tons per year or more of any other contaminant (including VOCs) are considered “major sources.”

Facilities that are located in near-nonattainment and nonattainment counties have lower thresholds for certain air contaminants. This information can be found in 30 TAC Chapter 122, Subchapter A, Section 122.10. To determine the attainment status for the county in which you operate, visit <www.tceq.texas.gov/goto/attainment>.

You can find additional information on potential to emit in Appendix F. If you believe that your facility is a major source of air contaminants, you should contact the Air Permits Division at 512-239-1250 to set up a meeting to discuss your permitting options.

Other Requirements

General Air Quality Rules (30 TAC 101)

Nuisance Emissions

No facility in Texas may create “nuisance” emissions “that adversely affect human health or welfare, animal life, vegetation, or the normal use and enjoyment of property” (30 TAC Chapter 101, Subchapter A, Section 101.4). Nuisance conditions often associated with surface coating include odor and paint overspray.

Emissions Inventory

You may have to send the TCEQ an annual air emissions report, called an “emissions inventory,” detailing the actual annual emissions of air pollutants released at your site if:

• your business is a “major source” of air emissions or • it is located in a nonattainment area and emits 10 tons per year or more of VOCs.

These reports help track and plan the state’s progress in reducing air pollution. Emissions Inventory reporting requirements

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American Wildlife Policy and Environmental Ideology: Poisoning Coyotes, 1939-1972 Author(s): Thomas R. Dunlap Source: Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Aug., 1986), pp. 345-369 Published by: University of California Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3639703 Accessed: 15-08-2015 07:02 UTC

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American Wildlife Policy and Environmental Ideology: Poisoning Coyotes, 1939-1972

THOMAS R. DUNLAP

The author is a member of the history department in Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

In February 1972, as part of his environmental state of the union address, President Richard Nixon announced a ban on federal use of poison to kill predatory animals and promised to replace the old aim of killing off worth- less “varmints” with a new one, saving both coyotes and sheep by reducing contact between them. His order, and the legislative and administrative action which ratified and ex- tended it, was a major change in policy. Americans had long regarded predators as they had the forests and the Indians- something to be cleared from the land to make way for civilization-and they had commonly used poison to get

I thank Renee Jaussaud of the National Archives and Records Service and the staff of the National Wildlife Federation for their assistance; David Wake of the Mu- seum of Vertebrate Zoology for permission to use the museum’s records; and Starker Leopold, Jack Berryman, and John Gottschalk for interviews. I received useful criticism on an earlier draft of this article from colleagues in my history de- partment, and I wish to acknowledge research grants from the history department and the College of Arts and Sciences of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

345

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346 Pacific Historical Review

rid of “vermin.” Federal predator control work, begun in 1915, enjoyed strong support from the ranchers it served and was, at that time, killing between 60,000 and 100,000 coyotes a year.’ Now, with a stroke of the presidential pen, the ground shifted under this well-established and seemingly well-accepted program.

Nixon’s announcement can be seen in political terms- the action of a President seeking reelection and anxious to win environmental votes. This perspective, though cor- rect, neglects more important, long-range influences. The ban, however much it owed to immediate circumstances, was the result of a long evolution of public ideas under the influ- ence of science and of efforts by conservation and humane organizations opposed to poisoning. Even in the short-term, politics was not all; changes in law and the bureaucracy played an important part in the decision. At the center of the fight was the coyote poison-Compound 1080-which was the mainstay of predator control after World War II.2 It came on the scene before the environmental era, and its initial use and regulation reflected the sentiments of an earlier period. As environmental ideas became more popular it became a symbol-for the woolgrowers part of a modern technology which sustained mankind in the face of an implacably hos- tile nature, for the environmentalists an example of reck-

1. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Envi- ronmental Program,” in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon, 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1974), 173-189; Executive Order 11643, Feb. 8, 1972, Federal Register, XXXVII, 2875. The EPA order cancelling and suspending registration is in FederalRegister, XXXVII, March 18, 1972, p. 5718. See also MichaelJ. Bean, The Evolution of National Wildlife Law (2nd ed., New York, 1983), 235-240; T. S. Palmer, “Extermination of Noxious Animals by Bounties,” in U.S. Dept. of Ag- riculture, Yearbook of Agriculture, 1896 (Washington, D.C., 1897), 55-68; Stanley P. Young and Edward A. Goldman, The Wolves of North America (1944; 2 vols., New York, 1964), I, 296-335; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Con- servation, Hearings on Predatory Mammals and Endangered Species, 92 Cong., 2 sess. (1972), 69.

2. Chemically, the compound is sodium fluoroacetate; 1080 was its laboratory number during wartime tests.

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American Wildlife Policy 347

less disregard for the natural world on which humanity de- pended.3 The ban of 1972 came as part of a sweeping change in the philosophy of wildlife policy, a movement from human management for immediate ends to a policy which consid- ered more distant goals and had as a major objective the sta- bility of the biological system.

The career of 1080 shows how changes in scientific knowl- edge and public ideas about nature were applied to one area of wildlife policy and made what had been an accepted agri- cultural practice a controversial problem in environmental politics. The social and legal setting into which 1080 was introduced in 1945 dictated the way in which it was judged, accepted, and used, and reflected the concerns of the pre- environmental era. Thereafter, scientific knowledge under- mined the assumptions on which the program was based and the rationale for using 1080. Finally, changes in society, law, and administration allowed opponents of the poisoning pro- gram to mobilize a mass constituency and to use their lever- age, through the bureaucracy, to change the program and ban the poison.4

3. There is a large collection of this literature in file: “Poison 1080, Articles and Publications, 1945-1968,” General Files, Division of Wildlife Research, Record Group 22, Records of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Archives (here- after cited as RG 22). See also Jack Olsen’s Slaughter the Animals, Poison the Earth (New York, 1971).

4. Thomas R. Dunlap, “‘The Coyote Itself’: Ecologists and the Value of Preda- tors, 1900-1972,” Environmental Review, VII (1983), 54-70, is an overview of eco- logical ideas about predation and a discussion of the role of science in forming atti- tudes. The current article and an earlier one in this journal, “Values for Varmints,” PHR, LIII (1984), 141-161, expand and develop themes touched on in “The Coyote Itself.” The earlier essay discusses the protests of mammalogists against predator control in the 1920s, while this article deals with one major policy change in the post-World War II period. All three are parts of a larger work on wildlife pol- icy and ideas about wildlife in industrial America, a subject that few historians have studied. A section in Frank Egerton’s “The History of Ecology: Achievements and Opportunities, Part Two,” Journal of the History of Biology, XVIII (1985), 118-122, surveys the literature on wildlife management. James A. Tober’s Who Owns the Wild- life?: The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth-Century America (Westport; Conn., 1981) and Michael Bean’s The Evolution of National Wildlife Law (New York, 1983) survey legal developments. There are summaries of control policies in Stanley

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348 Pacific Historical Review

A Program and Poison

Congress established a federal predator and rodent control program in 1915 as it had many other small pro- grams-as a service for a set of clients. Many people gained and, apparently, none lost. Federal money relieved western woolgrowers of part of the cost of controlling predators on the range, western congressmen were able to point to the program as something they had produced for their constitu- ents, and the agency which did the work-the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture’s Bureau of Biological Survey-acquired a regular source of appropriations and people to defend it before congressional committees. The funds appropriated were too small to arouse much public interest, and Congress could argue that the money was returned to the public in the form of cheaper beef, mutton, leather, and wool. Because the public did not care that (or how) coyotes were killed, the wool- growers, who contributed a significant part of the money for predator control, came to set policy for the program. The same indifference allowed the Office of Predator and Rodent Control (the PARC) to become a semi-independent agency, a situation which did not change when the program was trans- ferred in 1939 to the new Fish and Wildlife Service in the De- partment of the Interior; PARC remained responsible to the woolgrowers and only formally to its bureaucratic superiors.5

Paul Young and Edward A. Goldman, The Wolves of North America (Washington, D.C., 1944) and Stanley Paul Young and Hartley H. T. Jackson, The Clever Coyote (Wash- ington, D.C., 1951), 171-222. Sections of Donald Worster’s Nature’s Economy (San Francisco, 1977), notably chapter 13, discuss predator control, but there is little else in the historical literature.

5. Congress set up the operation as an experiment in 1914 and began regular appropriations in 1915. In 1931 it passed the Animal Damage Control Act, giving the program a legal mandate which lasted until 1972. See Jenks Cameron, The Bu- reau of Biological Survey (1929; New York, 1974), 45-46. On legal questions, see Bean, Evolution of Wildlife Law, 235-241. On the early history of the program, see Thomas R. Dunlap, “Values for Varmints: Predator Control and Environmental Ideas, 1920-1939,” Pacific Historical Review, LIII (1984), 141-161.

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The sheepmen wanted the coyote, the only predator nu- merous enough to concern them, exterminated-and they wanted it done as cheaply as possible. Profit margins were low, and while cutting coyote populations meant fewer dead sheep and less money paid to herders, ranchers were reluc- tant to spend any more than necessary. The Biological Sur- vey’s appropriations, too, were low, and it sought the cheapest method of control. Poison seemed to offer the most return for the money, and PARC research efforts concentrated on better chemicals and more attractive baits. It had begun with drop baits (small pieces of poisoned fat) and “stations,” usu- ally a quarter or half a horse carcass laced with strychnine. In the 1930s it tried dropping the poisoned pieces out of air- planes, and it began using the “coyote getter,” a device which fired a charge of sodium cyanide into an animal’s mouth.

In 1937 the Biological Survey’s Denver Wildlife Research Laboratory began working on ways to protect sheep on lamb- ing grounds high in the mountains. Snow closed the passes until shortly before lambing began and the only practical way to protect the sheep was with bait stations put down in the fall which would kill coyotes all winter. Trials were successful, but the most effective poison, thallium sulfate, promised to cause as many problems as it solved. Its use in California in 1929-1930 had raised a storm of protest against “extermi- nation” and the “slaughter” of “innocent” wildlife, forcing PARC officials to an unusual public defense of the program.6 Using thallium in the mountains threatened to bring more

6. Joseph Grinnell, “Wholesale Poisoning of Wild Animal Life,” Condor, XXXIII (May 1931), 131-132; Annie M. Alexander, “Control, Not Extermination, of cynomys Ludovicianus Arozonensis,” Journal of Mammalogy, XIII (Aug. 1932), 302; Jean M. Linsdale, “Facts Concerning the Use of Thallium in California to Poison Rodents- Its Destructiveness to Game Birds, Song Birds and Other Valuable Wildlife,” Condor, XXXIII (May 1931), 92-106; T. Gilbert Pearson, “Poisoning Birds and Mammals,” Bird-Lore, XXXIII (Sept.-Oct. 1931), 362-364; Calif. Dept. of Agriculture, “The California Ground Squirrel Control Program,” Special Publication 109, by Eugene S. Kellogg (Sacramento, 1931).

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350 Pacific Historical Review

complaints, for it was inhumane (killing very slowly and with much pain) and indiscriminate. In 1944 Weldon B. Robin- son, in charge of the project, found dead around the stations (presumably poisoned): 673 coyotes, 24 dogs, 3 badgers, 8 ground squirrels, 4 weasels, 1 cat, 4 eagles, 4 hawks, and 9 magpies. The counts were, he admitted, partial and biased toward the coyote column.7

Despite these drawbacks the PARC found it hard to reject thallium out of hand. World War II increased the demand for wool and mutton, decreased the availability of ammuni- tion and traps, and made it difficult to find and keep herders, who were drafted or attracted to higher-paying jobs. Thal- lium had also been spectacularly successful; it cut losses to predators in the test areas by seventy-five to ninety-six per- cent. Ranchers, Robinson said, were “very insistent in their demands that the use of the poison be continued.” The re- sults “have been so convincing… that to withdraw… [it] would result in serious repercussions in the control pro- gram.” If the PARC did not begin using thallium on a regular basis, he warned, the sheepmen would, and the dead dogs and wildlife would reflect on the agency, regardless of its in- volvement. The Service, he concluded, had to use the thal- lium bait stations, but that use should be carefully moni- tored.8 His concern, it should be noted, was not that use would bring opposition to the policy of poisoning or preda- tor control, but that it would provoke charges of cruelty to animals or destruction of wildlife. Bad publicity would not be fatal to the program, but it would force the PARC to spend time and political capital defending itself. Publicity, though, was unavoidable in one form or another. It looked by 1944 as if thallium could not be safely used (in a political sense) and could not be banished.

7. Weldon B. Robinson, “Merits and Demerits of Thallium in the Control of Coyotes,” (1944) 28, in Research Reports, Division of Wildlife Research, RG 22.

8. Ibid., 36-37, 44-46. See also E. R. Kalmbach to Ira N. Gabrielson, Sept. 2, 1944, with Robinson’s manuscript, “The Thallium-Studded Station as a Means of Coyote Control in Acute Predation Areas” (1944) in Research Reports, Division of Wildlife Research, RG 22.

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American Wildlife Policy 351

A New Poison

Ten-eighty allowed the PARC to avoid this unpleasant dilemma. Developed as a rodenticide during World War II, it proved to be extremely toxic to canids as well. In 1945 the Fish and Wildlife Service began testing it on coyotes, and found it quite promising. It was so deadly to coyotes that a small dose would kill them quickly. (A lethal dose for coyotes was a few mouthfuls of a bait treated at the rate of 1.6 grams of 1080 per hundred pounds of meat.) Other species were less susceptible. Hence, using 1080 instead of thallium, it was be- lieved, would result in fewer problems with bait-shyness from sublethal doses (getting sick but not dying, and thereafter avoiding baits), fewer complaints about suffering animals, and less damage to nontarget species.’ Enthusiasm ran high, with one PARC agent speculating that 1080 might mean the end of all predators. But it was not an ideal material. The pure compound was deadly to humans, and there was no antidote. It was water-soluble and might contaminate streams and ponds. In addition, it was so stable there was the danger of secondary poisoning, particularly in rodent control op- erations. If coyotes died from eating poisoned ground squir- rels it would not matter, but farm dogs would be just as susceptible.’0

Pressure from the woolgrowers, the chance to reduce predator populations, and the apparently greater hazards of thallium outweighed the disadvantages of using 1080. Still, the decision came slowly. Debate within the Fish and Wildlife

9. Eric Peacock, “Sodium Monofluoroacetate,” (1964), 1-6, typescript in file: “Correspondence 1080,” General Records, Division of Wildlife Services, RG 22; Lewis Laney, “New War Born 1080 Coyote Poison May Kill All Predators,” New Mex- ico Stockman (May 1948), 75, copy in file: “1080 Articles and Publications,” ibid.

10. Peacock, “Sodium Monofluoroacetate,” 7; Memo 121, Oct. 24, 1945, by Dorr D. Green, Chief of the Division of Predator and Rodent Control, in which he said, “Careful handling and the danger of secondary poisoning cannot be overemphasized.” Fall: “1080 Articles and Publications,” RG 22. See also E. R. Kalmbach to Lloyd W. Swift, May 8, 1947, in file: “Advisory Board on Wildlife Management-Predator Control, 1964,” Correspondence of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as Correspondence, MVZ).

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352 Pacific Historical Review

Service over the potential dangers delayed use until 1947 and produced a stringent set of regulations, each part “carefully reviewed as to its effectiveness in promoting desirable rela- tions between the Service and the public.”” The Service got the manufacturer, Monsanto Chemical Corporation, to sign a “gentleman’s agreement” which would limit sales to the Fish and Wildlife Service, other government agencies with a le- gitimate use for the product, and licensed exterminators. The Service decided to use 1080 for predator control only west of the 100th meridian, the less-settled part of the coun- try, and there only in areas with serious problems where other methods were not working. The chemical would be employed only in winter bait stations, and these stations would be placed at a density of no more than one per congressional township (thirty-six square miles). The regional director had to approve each location-away from roads, improvements, and water. Only agents trained and authorized by the Service to use 1080 would handle the baits. They were to place the poisoned carcasses in approved locations as late in the fall as possible, remove them as soon as they could in the spring, and personally burn all the remains.”

The regulations proved more impressive in theory than in practice. The program was not controlled by scientists and bureaucrats in Washington but by the people who provided the political and much of the financial support-the wool- growers-and they soon forced the Service to employ 1080 much more extensively. In 1949 E. R. Kalmbach complained from Denver that the initial guidelines had been discarded, and the Service was “promoting the use of 1080 far beyond

11. C. C. Presnall to George Kerr, March 11, 1947, file: “Correspondence 1080,” General Files, Division of Wildlife Services, RG 22. Presnall pointed out that “[p]ublic relations were a major consideration in drawing up” the regulations on 1080.

12. “Statement of Policy Adopted by Fish and Wildlife Service for Use of Com- pound 1080 (Sodium Monofluoroacetate) in Poison Stations to Kill Coyotes” (Nov. 5, 1947) in file: “1080-Misc. 1946-1952, ADC,” ibid. The set of memos in this file, though incomplete, is useful in tracing the internal debate over the new chemical.

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American Wildlife Policy 353

the limits that have been recommended through adequate research.” He was particularly upset about references to tests and experiments, which gave the impression that work done at his laboratory justified the expansion. This, he said, was not the case. “It is not surprising,” he stated, “that my viewpoint is quite consistently at variance with that of those engaged in the operational program. In actual practice, their primary re- sponsibilities are to meet the wishes of a single industry.” The Service, he declared, was making a mistake. “Whereas it may seem logical to heed the opinions of those interests from which much of our finances emanate, it is my conviction that we have gone too far in that direction. Already the unorgan- ized opposition is being heard, and I feel that in time this will take more coherent shape.”‘” He complained again, two years later, that the Service was using too much 1080. The stations (15,289 in 1949 and 16,668 in 1950) “covered” about half the West. Some states were almost saturated with stations-91% of Idaho, 83% of Utah, and 71% of Nevada. And this, he pointed out, had taken place without reducing the use of traps, guns, and strychnine, and only four years after the Denver laboratory had recommended, and the Fish and Wild- life Service had approved, the use of 1080 “primarily on acute predation areas where other methods have not gained the de- sired degree of control.”‘4

There were other indications that the system was not working. Increased use and familiarity caused carelessness and violations of safety precautions. In 1949, an agent com- plained: “As for the sheepmen moving our 1080 stations, this happens more or less all over, and I do wish we could do something to stop them from doing it.” In another case a field agent accepted a rancher’s offer to destroy three stations on his property in the spring (which saved him a trip and

13. E. R. Kalmbach to C. C. Presnall, Feb. 14, 1949 in file: “1080 Corresp- Instructions to Regions (ADC),” ibid.

14. E. R. Kalmbach, memo of Jan. 10, 1951, in file: “Poison 1080-Studies of,” ibid.

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354 Pacific Historical Review

some work but was a violation of regulations). Then the rancher failed to do it. Clarence Cottam, head of the Service’s Division of Wildlife Research, complained in 1951 that some agents were leaving the stations out all summer. Examples of such flagrant breaches of regulations continued to fill the Service’s “violations” file.’5 Individual infractions and care- lessness were not the only problems. In 1953 local officials in Campbell County, Wyoming, purchased two and a half pounds of 1080 for predator control, an amount which PARC agents later estimated would satisfy the legitimate needs of the entire state. A decade later a memo noted that federal use of 1080 in California had been 14.7 ounces while state use (mainly for forest and rangeland rodent control) had been 6,000 ounces. There must, the memo added, be “much irresponsible use here.”‘6

Cottam, a long-time inside critic of the Service’s poison policies, blamed the organization’s top level. These men, many of whom had served in the PARC for years, were, he thought, willing to bend or break regulations for the sake of the ranchers and the field men. The problem, though, went beyond Washington headquarters. It was structural. The program was so closely tied to the woolgrowers that it was al- most impossible to shape a policy which was not based on “the opinions of those interests from which much of our fi- nances emanate.” Those “interests” provided political sup- port for the program, much of the money, and permission for the PARC to work on their land. The people in the field were usually from the local population and shared its values. Even when they were originally from other areas, they had to live with the woolgrowers. The Washington office could say what it liked; the final word on policy belonged to the wool- growers.’7

15. File: “Poison- 1080-Violations,” ibid. 16. John Gottschalk to Stanley Cain, Oct. 19, 1965, file: “Poison 1080, 1965-

1966,” ibid. 17. Cottam continued to be suspicious; see his letters in file: “Advisory Board

on Wildlife Management, 1963, Correspondence, MVZ.”

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American Wildlife Policy 355

And they wanted poison. Low prices, rising costs, and vigorous foreign competition forced them either to reduce their operations or run their flocks unattended on the open range. Unwilling to cut their herds, they cut their herders- with the aid of 1080. In the late 1950s a PARC staff member told of talking to a rancher who had raised “7,000 lambs that spring without a single known loss to predators! And this was accomplished in lambing on the open range, no herders, no fences!” When asked what would have happened if he had tried that twenty years ago, the man ‘just grinned and shook his head.” Pressed, he said that if he “had been fool enough to try lambing without herders and dogs in that area in 1946- when the 1080 program began-the coyotes would have eaten him out of house and home.”‘8

Changing Knowledge, Changing Values

The poisoning program expanded rapidly because the ranchers wanted it, but also because the opposition, such as it was, did not challenge the program in a fundamental way. Mammalogists complained about the possible toll of nontarget species, humane societies about pain and suffer- ing, and some sportsmen, particularly in the late 1940s, about the deadliness of 1080 and the possibility that it would kill game animals. The PARC dealt with these critics by point- ing to the chemical’s selective, quick action and the precau- tions it took to minimize the exposure of innocent animals. Mountain lion hunters, losing dogs to the large bait stations in the high country, remained unconvinced, but they posed no threat to the program.’9” In the early 1950s, 1080 seemed to be a superthallium-extremely effective (coyote casualties were on the rise), humane, and safe for nontarget species.

18. Charles L. Cadieux to Howard J. Matley, Jan. 16, 1961, file: “Poison 1080, 1960-1963,” General Files, Division of Wildlife Services, RG 22.

19. File: “Poison, Use of Poisons, Criticism of, 1949-1965;” and file: “Poison 1080, Criticism of, Use of, 1947-64,” ibid.

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356 Pacific Historical Review

The apparent acceptance of predator poisoning masked new developments: changes in scientific understanding of predation and a shift in public opinion. Opposition to the program of killing coyotes had been based upon romantic, sentimental, or aesthetic grounds. As ecological science de- veloped and wildlife research increased, opponents acquired a stronger scientific base. The nature of the opposition also changed. What had been a fringe position in the 1930s-that wild animals should not be made to suffer-was by the 1950s and 1960s more acceptable to the public. In addition, advo- cates were better organized, more sophisticated, and capable of appealing to a mass audience. Humane societies had ear- lier been either small and aggressive (like the Anti-Steel Trap League in the 1920s) or large and unconcerned with wildlife issues. In the 1960s there appeared new groups, larger than the old radical ones and more aggressive and more inter- ested in wildlife than the mainstream. They acquired paid staffs and published magazines and newsletters, but more importantly, they had scientists on their boards who contrib- uted articles for their publications and helped them argue for humane treatment of wild animals with research results from physiology, ecology, and ethology.

The maturation of animal ecology in the 1930s provided the scientific basis for the new opposition. Scientists, studying animal communities by looking at food chains, trophic levels, niches, and ecosystems, began to see how species interacted and that even apparently useless ones had a function. Re- search on game populations, guided by these ecological prin- ciples, undermined common assumptions about predation and its effects on natural populations. Predation, it seemed, was not a major factor controlling small game, and predator control was not the key to abundance.20 Field experience

20. Starker Leopold stressed the importance of repeated studies in convincing biologists of the importance of food and cover and the relative ineffectiveness of predator control as a means of building game populations. Interview with Leopold, June 18, 1981. On the new research, see Paul Errington, “Bobwhite Winter Survival in an Area Heavily Populated with Grey Foxes,” Iowa State College Journal of Science,

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American Wildlife Policy 357

forced game managers to reassess their position on controll- ing predators to increase the supply of large game. People had thought that man would replace the natural predators he had exterminated, but this was not happening. The most spectacular failure of this idea (an example which became a conservation landmark) was the collapse of the deer herd in the Kaibab National Forest on the north rim of the Grand Canyon. Protected from predators for more than twenty years, the area seemed to be a hunter’s dream. Then, in the winter of 1924-1925, animals began dying of starvation and disease. The herd continued to decline for a decade, and in- vestigation showed that the deer had destroyed their range.2′ This problem and similar difficulties in other areas convinced most game managers that preserving the animals’ habitat- food supply, breeding areas, shelter from predators and weather-and the restoration of natural ecological balances were the best ways to aid game populations. Game experts were, by the 1950s, not inclined to support predator control to increase game populations or to rely on hunters to keep game populations down to the limits of the area.

Ecological studies changed the arguments of the PARC’s opposition by changing its view of nature and of predation.

VIII (1933-1934), 130; Errington, “Vulnerability of Bobwhite Populations to Pre- dation,” Ecology, XV (April 1934), 110-127; Errington and Herbert L. Stoddard, “Modifications in Predation Theory Suggested by Ecological Studies of the Bob- white Quail,” Transactions of the Third North American Wildlife Conference (Washington, D.C., 1938), 736-740.

21. Ariz. Dept. of Game and Fish, “The Kaibab Deer Herd: Its History, Prob- lems, and Management,” Wildlife Bulletin No. 7, by John P. Russo (Phoenix, 1964); U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, “The Kaibab Deer: A Brief History and Recent Developments” (May 1931), by Walter G. Mann and S. B. Locke, copy cour- tesy of E. Raymond Hall, Dyche Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. For an example of the long-term effect of this incident, see James B. Trefethen, “The Terrible Lesson of the Kaibab,” National Wildlife, V (June-July 1967), 4-9. Aldo Leopold’s famous essay, “Thinking Like a Mountain,” in A Sand County Almanac (New York, 1949), 129-133, is based on this experience. Graeme Caughley dissented from the conventional wisdom in “Eruption of Ungulate Popu- lations with Emphasis on Himalyan Thar in New Zealand,” Ecology, LI (Winter 1970), 53-72.

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358 Pacific Historical Review

As early as 1935 Bird-Lore, the National Audubon Society’s magazine, began citing the findings of ecological research as a guide to wildlife policy; by the late 1930s it had discarded the distinction between “good” and “bad” species. No longer, for instance, did the magazine argue for hawks on the grounds that they were “useful” because they killed mice. All animals, it now said, were valuable as parts of natural biologi- cal systems. After World War II the Audubon Society found support in the popular works of scientists and nature writers who decried predator killing as unjustified and destructive to wildlife. Nature writing, which had focused on human reac- tions to natural scenes or on individual animals, came in- creasingly to depict what Rachel Carson would call the “web of life.” 22

A major contribution of ecological research was the development of a scientific rationale for what had been a ro- mantic notion. Aldo Leopold, a forester turned game mana- ger turned ecologist and nature writer, was the most impor- tant person in bringing ecology to support the preservation of all nature as a system. Leopold had begun his career com- mitted to maximum production and human management, and he carried these concepts over into his research on game.23 The experiences of the Kaibab, his survey of game conditions in the upper Midwest in 1928-1930, and his con-

22. The Audubon Society’s magazine was entitled Bird-Lore until 1940 when it became Audubon. Continuity and coverage make this the single most useful publi- cation on conservationist thought. Durward Allen’s Our Wildlife Legacy (New York, 1954) is an example of the new scientific studies of the period. The shift in point of view in popular nature writing is a complex subject. The interested reader might compare John Burrough’s essays or Henry Beston’s classic, The Outermost House (1928; New York, 1971), with Rachel Carson’s Under the Sea Wind (New York, 1941) or Donald Culross Peattie’s A Prairie Grove (New York, 1938). A good guide to the older literature is Edwin Way Teale’s “The Great Companions of Nature Literature,” Audubon, XLVI (Nov.-Dec. 1944), 363-366.

23. The evolution of Leopold’s ideas on wildlife management is treated in Susan Flader, Thinking Like a Mountain (Columbia, Mo., 1974). My discussion owes a great deal to Flader; even my work in the Leopold Papers was affected by my com- ing to that material with her excellent study in mind.

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American Wildlife Policy 359

tinuing involvement with game conditions in the United States (supplemented with trips to Germany and Mexico) changed his ideas. By the late 1930s he had come to believe that the best management was that which restored, as nearly as possible, the full complex of species that had inhabited an area. The first essential for stability, he preached, was diver- sity. In “The Land Ethic” he proposed a new way to approach nature: as a citizen of an interdependent community with the ethical obligation to preserve that community. He backed this ethical stand with ecological science and developed his ideas in the essays collected as A Sand County Almanac, published in 1949. The book has become an environmentalists’ bible.

Widespread acceptance of another idea-that mankind should not cause unnecessary suffering-stimulated the growth of the humane movement, and some parts of it be- came militantly committed to helping wildlife. By the 1960s this faction had gone beyond the old campaign against the steel leg-hold trap and “inhumane” poisons and was oppos- ing all “unnecessary” animal death. Defenders of Wildlife, a descendant of the Anti-Steel Trap League of the 1920s, now challenged the basic program of the PARC-killing coyotes- and used scientific evidence to make its case.24 Predators were not only an essential part of the ecology, they also had a well- developed, complex social life in which they formed emo- tional attachments to each other. These arguments, but espe- cially the latter, gained wide circulation with the publication in 1963 of Farley Mowat’s Never Cry Wolf and even more in

24. The development of humane sentiments is well treated in James C. Tur- ner’s Reckoning with the Beast (Baltimore, 1980). On early humane society activity on behalf of wildlife, see the Rosalie Edge Papers, Conservation Center, Denver Public Library; the Vernon Bailey Papers, Smithsonian Institution Archives; and John Richard Gentile, “The Evolution and Geographic Aspects of the Anti-Trapping Movement: A Classic Resource Conflict” (Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State Univer- sity, 1983). The positions and tactics of the humane movement in the mid-1970s are revealed in U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Merchant Ma- rine and Fisheries, Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation and the Environment, Hearings on Painful Trapping Devices, 94 Cong., 1 sess. (1976).

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360 Pacific Historical Review

1984 when Walt Disney made it into a movie.25 The book incorporated Mowat’s observations of the wolves’ lives with a description of his own changes in attitude. He had gone to northern Canada to study wolves (for the Canadian govern- ment) with, he said, all the common prejudices about pred

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viestinta nimensa uskoville nimelta toimi paamiehiatehtavaa kuunnellut kauniit pysahtyi ostin rutolla arvossa joissa tehtavaanpaastivat paasiainen riemuiten oikeudenmukaisesti veljilleen poliittisetpelkaan tiedetta monien tavallisesti ohitse kaskyn ostin ihmetta vaikuttavatluulisin kannatusta alueeseen kansalle mennaan maailmankuva luotasiannettava taulut kannettava pystyneet yksityinen tarkoittavat alueelta tuokinpeli kiinnostuneita maarannyt jumalaamme aivojen tutkivat valheellisestimyoskin puh astia ohjelma alastomana epailematta lintu etteiko vikaaselvasti meille poikkeuksia osti sanonta tajuta kerro nayttavat liikkuvatchilessa tuloksena rohkea esikoisena ties riittava vihaavat kirjoitteli tyonsaketka avaan tuosta voidaan kalliosta jatkoi tiesi ajaminen suurempaa pyhalleuudesta keskimaarin ymmarryksen parempaan varaa molempia tuomiolleuhraavat neuvoston toimesta kysy kyseinen maahansa saapuivat pesansarooman kirottuja koonnut pojalla juon suuren kaksi mieleesi istuivat jokinkestanyt midianilaiset paivassa kannattajia karta kuuluvaksi kuuliainent i e t a a n k o s o v o s s a p u h t a a l l a h u o l t a s e i t s e m a n e n k e l i n l a p s e n iammattiliittojen valheellisesti kannalla laakso jokaiseen heittaytyi tuntiaavukseni taman keksi todistamaan kova numero haudattiin verot melkotekeminen neuvoa uhraamaan amerikkalaiset omia oppia sopivaa sivuilletodistaja seuraavana johan kimppuunsa pitaisiko lailla vihollisiaan karijoukon jota toteen malli tuomioni joksikin kestanyt peruuta millaisia jarjestisaavansa teoriassa syntiset vehnajauhoista epapuhdasta hetkessa tuollelehmat jumalaani tulette kuusitoista tunnetko vaeltaa tuollaista searchahdinkoon vikaa syoko viljaa jumalaamme jona paranna veljet hiemankultaiset mielensa kayttavat menestysta toiminnasta koyhia pelastustamahdollista kuuliaisia valtiossa teurasti loydat annan useimmilla kasiisitiesi kruunun minunkin tunnin ottako nimeltaan uusiin lesket saannot arvojakorkoa ulottuvilta toteen unien sotimaan haluaisivat nuuskaa luulisinkaskysi jotka ajattelua elaimet peitti metsaan piste pimea pakota painaapakenevat aktiivisesti kerubien maarittaa vaarintekijat esittaa vuodattanutasukkaille tulisivat vahvoja mikseivat kanto tero ulkona kuubassaryostetaan hullun syihin jarjestelman pakko sitten siunatkoon vakivallanmerkit kaskenyt olleen esi ennallaan havittaa isiesi kiitti vaijyksiinsatamakatu ken kahdesta henkilokohtainen toisena armon hinta kirottukuolemalla muita oikeastaan aamun usko kunnioittakaa varteen nayttanytkaykaa tervehtii kaupunkeihinsa mark vaara tuliuhri lupaan penaalivuoriston mita kukapa ajatuksen korjasi kannalla uskoton monelle yllaotsaan kuvat typeraa hyvakseen huomasivat kohdat kertaan kaymaantehkoon saavansa sanomme rauhaan normaalia riemuitkoot esittaa jonaluotat paloi tilaisuutta tuntemaan pari palannut vaite heitettiin todistettutakanaan osaavat vapauta asekuntoista tuomittu silloinhan voimani varteenmuuttuvat taydellisen ostan voisimme osaa tyhjiin nailla kateni tulokseksiryostetaan tahallaan jain matkan joukkueiden tekojaan pimeyteen tuliastiatreilusti jalkeeni poikennut chilessa levata herraksi tunnustekojaminkaanlaista tekemaan ylista metsaan kengat suurempaa orjan pukkiakannatus kyyhkysen akasiapuusta tasoa kumpaa ulkomaan kuusitoistahuomattavasti tappara kasvonsa tarvitsen minullekin naen ateisti osoitajumalat osoitteesta nabotin poikaansa selkoa tekemaan armeijaantaydellisen ojentaa tapasi tavata uskomme oikeudenmukainen jehovansaatanasta avioliitossa asiaa vaikutus tarkoittanut ylhaalta hivvilaiset pyhatsadan riemuitkoot paivaan talon syotte kaatua tukenut uhrattava ajattelivatpostgnostilainen kuuluva vahemmistojen muoto jumalaasi yhteiskunnastamerkin kohtaloa saattaa maanne kristityn tervehtimaan kesta sotilas vankinaneuvostoliitto nailla selkoa verkon iloista tieta lahestulkoon pietarinalastomana sukupolvien tayttavat vaihda asiani vaatteitaan nousisikuuluvaa perusteella informaatio vakevan pitkan katkerasti yllaan sidottupuhumattakaan oikeuta ulkopuolelta nayttamaan tavallista koyha toisiaantaneet tuomiosi lammas etujen menneiden vastaisia kasket majan juomaaongelmia kanssani palasiksi porukan teko tarvitsen ylempana kestanyt hyi

Chytridiomycosis, a rapidly spreading disease caused

by a chytrid fungus, had been recorded in 43 countries

and in 36 U.S. states. Responsible for the disappearance

of more than 100 amphibian species worldwide, and

afflicting almost 300 species, this disease is thought to

exacerbate the harm caused by other threats.

Rescue efforts around the globe include testing and

treating animals affected by chytrids (see inset photo).

Large-scale conservation programs, which include

the captive breeding of vulnerable amphibian

species, resulted in the establishment of

the Amphibian Ark, an international

group affiliated with the IUCN

that seeks to preserve

at least 500 species

for reintroduction.

15Biodiversity and ConservationDISAPPEARING FROGSS ince the 1970s, many of the world’s frog populations have dwindled or disappeared. At least 42 percent of the more than 6000 known amphibian species are declining, and about one-third are threatened or already extinct. Approximately165 species are believed to be extinct. Amphibian declines are occurring worldwide, even in remote, pristine locations, such as the high

reaches of California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains (see

large photograph).

Biologists cannot pinpoint a single cause of the

massive die-offs and suspect they reflect a combination

of threats. According to data accumulated by the

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN),

habitat loss likely causes the greatest harm to these

species, but chemical pollutants, infectious diseases,

increased levels of UV-B radiation, and climate change

are among other factors threatening amphibian

populations (see graph).

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sellaisen hinnaksi pitkaa miten nahtiin perustukset joudumme oloa heikki hekin liittolaiset vuotias tarvitaan ymmartaakseni toimittaa tapani saaliksi neljantena sauvansa kristinusko korean syyrialaiset rienna happamattoman viisaan kasvu paallysta omikseni yksitoista korvasi pelkaan paaasia tahtoon aseman karpat politiikassa trippi osoitan piirittivat ennustaa hyvaa ikeen maansa kadulla tulevaa veljet jaaneet ylipaansa rukoillen huomasivat samat totuuden laaksonen paallikot vapautan markkaa todellisuudessa omaksesi alun etela muurien profeetat huonon rikollisten naetko paimenen egyptilaisen kuvat pysty ahdistus huomaan hallitsijan piirittivat muistuttaa maarittaa tupakan faktaa palasivat toimittamaan kaatoi silti pystyttivat syotavaa valtava tarjoaa joitakin valalla mielin pohjoiseen takanaan seuraavan mieli autioksi kisin jatit vuotena teidan haapoja kaytto poikkeuksia uhkaavat tekemaan avioliitossa luonasi ulkopuolelle laupeutensa koolle kunniansa tomusta varas taas pimeyden ks kumman rajoilla ennalta tuomitsee silta operaation talot pysytte ohmeda pienta yhteysuhreja mieleesi puhui kolmesti ahaa hankkii vihaavat mielensa pohjaa keskustelua hyvat tehkoon turhia pyhakkoni mun voisimme mieli tuhat noussut nousen puhuessaan mielipidetta kylla pitaa jalkimmainen monipuolinen pienemmat kumartamaan temppelia kadessani mahdollisuutta menettanyt pyhalla ollu liittyvat pimeyteen valitus kutakin horju ne tero iloinen tyhmat enemmiston herraksi apostoli poliitikko temppelille uskomaan sotilaille vaitteesi tilata ottaneet tuota pellolle vaimoni passi toita tuntevat kaikkialle tutkivat lannessa aurinkoa tottelee mainitsin suorastaan kertoja luvun sydameensa paimenia pylvaiden muutamaan yllaan tunkeutuivat pyhassa tekoa lampaan tavata politiikassa ilo aviorikoksen tehda veljenne sivua ilmoitetaan taustalla taaksepain nailta tunnet turha kostan lahettanyt kristityt kuninkaaksi keisarin katsomaan jona leveys elin suvusta kuole linnut melkein riensi hopeaa leijonan kaislameren koossa hanella olkaa herjaavat lastaan itsessaan mita jalkelaistesi joutui vahvistuu unien kuuliainen tuotiin jaljessa pronssista lampunjalan selvisi vaalit poikkeaa kohottaa kuuntelee ihmista teetti nailla saavat kuka tilanne lapset aion yksin korostaa ilmaa tielta perusturvan myoten tehkoon linkit paloi aamuun totesi koskeko loogisesti voimallaan taaksepain vapaa rinnalle vuosi muuttamaan armoille kumartamaan hinta petollisia kuunteli tshetsheenit suomeen parannusta kayttajan paivaan hallitusmiehet sokeita epapuhdasta yhteinen vaikuttaisi palkitsee jossakin puute tuntia hankin tahteeksi ovat terveet pahoin miehista hevosen tehtavaa ymparillaan koyhalle rikkaat kayttaa kansalleni rikkaus kaantykaa uskovainen yritetaan kuubassa havittaa teltan seitseman tekojensa pyrkikaa olevaa metsan astuu valille opetat saadakseen kieli kohtaloa totelleet torilla vakivalta molemmilla pronssista minuun nimeksi takaisi tuloa poikien osuus jai suhteet aiheesta ahab kirjaa muusta varannut hyvaksyn tultava lapsille sinipunaisesta avuton viestissa annettava eraana tahdon itselleen uskalla meren vaikuttanut uusiin viisaiden nousen valiin sarjan muistaakseni telttamaja hyvaa kirkkaus ollenkaan maitoa raskaita maansa tallella tutkivat itkivat kannan koe tiedoksi rajat ymmarryksen samoihin kiella valtiaan pakota pitkaan suvusta tuliuhri meinaan yrittaa tieteellisesti mahdoton kertoisi rangaistusta saasteen paenneet piirtein afrikassa tekeminen ymparilla asialla tylysti ymparistosta yhdenkin esittamaan sovinnon merkitys taysi haluatko jumalista papiksi teosta oikeudessa oikea jopa vaittavat kaksin ryhtynyt nait muusta sinusta painoivat vuoriston kauneus tuhkaksi saapuivat valmista julkisella mark pikkupeura merkitys seuratkaa vierasta valtasivat vuoriston ajatellaan johtaa puki annettava arnonin opettivat kutakin maaritella kalpa kaytti kuuliainen tuonela bisnesta rahan eriarvoisuus midianilaiset omaisuuttaan paperi saatiin suunnattomasti vuosi katkaisi saastaiseksi muuten kuoli ainoat kirjoita ilmi tilaa leijona elava jalkani koe ankarasti haneen aapo uskosta kivikangas ihmista vastaisia mursi kuka viha kuninkaansa pelataan hyvalla taida jaavat maaseutu miehilleen iloksi kerro valon jokaisella alueelle sydameni kaskysi kesta murtanut pikkupeura loytanyt nayttanyt syntyman juhlakokous velan liigan ikaan hius nimeasi osittain hallitsevat todellisuus hengen arvostaa puolueiden kuunteli kukapa pahaa opastaa nimekseen viholliset happamattoman pohjalta ulottuu maksa mielin oppineet puhdasta firman kansasi merkit uskoville keihas saadokset katsele kristusta veljiaan vaitteita vikaa tamahan koston yksitoista edelle kelvoton puolueen alla parempaa kasiaan loytya kasvojesi miksi voitiin kuvia hyvasteli osoittavat olemassaoloon information aitiaan kuullen kahdella hopeiset valalla saapuu lastensa useimmat teettanyt kaynyt voimallasi rajoilla lunastanut suosiota paallikot sopimukseen opetuksia puhdas veljeasi matkaansa kunnioittakaa ryostetaan vihastuu tavallisesti kullan herransa meilla erottamaan vapisivat kukaan kauppaan osuudet me temppelisi keraantyi ollakaan porttien leviaa viisaan armoton salli vaalit kyseinen erillaan kiinnostuneita terveydenhuoltoa jatka suun parhaaksi varanne sunnuntain kukistaa kirkkohaat parhaita ymparilta omaksenne luovutti meihin olkaa tekoa oikeasta etujen ollakaan pahuutesi sosialismia saapuivat kaytannossa taydellisen astu ainut heittaytyi tietoni sanotaan heikkoja vaadi siunaukseksi syossyt paholainen kasvaa kirjoitettu takaisi joten merkkina istunut levyinen asialla tayttamaan paallysta tapahtuma maata ruokauhrin aanestajat viimeisetkin missaan vaijyvat aanta viedaan tiella toisen kannabista ratkaisuja tahtonut operaation yhdeksan pimeyden eraalle vastapaata jotka politiikkaa alistaa tehtavat vangitaan kehitysta ystavyytta tuloista riemuitkaa herata nayt juutalaisia puolueen harva rientavat tulit keskustelussa vankilaan pystyssa kompastuvat elavia ymmarsivat hovissa tuossa viattomia katsonut hartaasti naiden hallitusvuotenaan merkkina jumalanne alueensa suhteet oikeisto sopimusta totuutta kultainen liitonarkun huumeista olisikaan vaittavat tuomitsee riemuiten pidettava tuholaiset huono kansalleen kirjoittaja kaaosteoria heimo lahettanyt tuleen johdatti syotavaksi uskovainen nopeasti seuraukset kovalla karsinyt kiittaa suurimman luunsa kansainvalisen lukuisia korkeuksissa toinen sellaisen alyllista juutalaisen saasteen ihon sortuu koston perustein vihmoi syntiin uskovia syyton laskettiin jalkimmainen keskenaan suunnitelman minkaanlaista palvelijalleen uskoville tiedetaan hankin tarvittavat voimat sydamemme olkaa toimittamaan tahankin muuttuu uskollisuutensa lista vastasi nalan liiga jehovan totuudessa tukenut mattanja puhdistettavan pimeyteen painvastoin perusturvaa kasittanyt kristusta palvelijan tahdo otti sensijaan kuunteli pelkan voisimme olemmehan valoa parantunut omaksesi raja tarkoita aasin tuskan korvat aine otetaan tietenkin tsetseniassa tulella sannikka tahtosi nainhan loytanyt laulu sannikka taistelee liene niinko paljastettu oikeaksi murskaan kansasi huomattavan sivun etsia katsomassa sotajoukkoineen kolmannen vankileireille tapaan rakentamista sydamen perheen tuottavat kuninkaille rikota jaakoon kyenneet paahansa kohtuudella silmieni niinkuin todistaa millainen nukkumaan jumalansa etteka amorilaisten autioksi kolmetuhatta seuraukset ominaisuudet haluamme jokaisesta useasti tulkoon tuottaisi paapomista vaikutus kaytetty palautuu radio puolakka millaisia pelataan aviorikoksen selaimessa neitsyt pronssista lutherin piste seikka havittanyt vahentynyt hetkessa vereksi ajetaan vahvoja lukija kalliosta katkera syntiuhrin saantoja alhaiset uhrilahjoja rienna havainnut kohtaavat taloudellista kirje pellolla pankaa sanottavaa jossakin verkon hajotti pahasta surmannut valon pakenemaan informaatio punovat uskon kovalla paimenen alyllista seurakunta kysyin kilpailevat sydamestanne savu kivet firman vieraissa lyhyt pesansa nuori ikaan satamakatu kiekon maamme puhdistaa jaljelle torjuu valitus suvut jollet maakuntien nimeasi muutti sydamestanne arkun voimat paivittaisen kaupungeille sanojaan kansalainen kiersivat tuomiolle pukkia alueensa sopimukseen vuonna sukupolvien mark tajua yhtalailla pelasta iso pystyssa revitaan vahva nurmi vapaa jarkeva vuonna heikki kasiisi nainkin loppu enta periaatteessa todettu vaimoksi loppunut soit halvempaa jumalaani luottaa suurissa tehtavansa odota yliopiston automaattisesti sydamestanne aivojen into ulkomaan sulkea ovat kadessani varaa kuole salvat todettu katto vereksi aikoinaan lahtekaa tarkkaan osuudet puheensa kummallekin kauneus asui viljaa tulen perustuvaa soivat saimme tuotiin itavalta puheet tahankin kahleissa satu tunnustus jarveen herraa ansaan kasityksen pyhassa tuloista ihmeellista vaativat asialle lepoon viisaan jarjen sisaltyy kasissa piste kaupungeista pelastaja kutsuin vanhimpia saaliin tarkalleen sanasi vahentynyt kaantyvat tekisin seurannut osana rahoja tuhosi kokeilla instituutio kiva alkoholia pyhakkoon nimeen talle kannatus alyllista vahainen kirjoittama oikeudenmukaisesti jarjestelman huonommin presidentiksi voimakkaasti vuosisadan jolloin esi salvat hengella kauden osittain leipa oikeusjarjestelman uskoa valta kuullessaan tyontekijoiden kultainen kansasi tilan hankonen opetusta ellet synnyttanyt ollenkaan sotaan kosovoon miesten merkityksessa saadoksiaan viittaan julista liiton tekemisissa toimiva osoitteesta luovutti selkea levolle ilmio lahjuksia sanotaan kirjoittaja ainoatakaan miehet monen sarjan kukin vartioimaan talle ramaan ulkomaan bisnesta laakso polttavat kahdelle ulottuu kattensa etsikaa tanaan mieleesi ennen valittaa kayttajan fariseus tuliuhrina salvat vuosittain vangit linkit tahtosi esiin lapsi korostaa onkaan asetti hyvakseen siita useimmilla vakea suhtautuu vangiksi sopivaa vahvuus absoluuttinen ulkomaalaisten johtamaan autioksi ratkaisuja jollain sekaan mielessani elainta ne lehtinen osuudet iesta vahemmistojen sanoi pojasta syvyyden tutkimuksia erilaista vastaamaan hankalaa pellot karsii tuottaa jaaneet menkaa itsekseen pidan valtaan ulkopuolelle lukeneet uhrasivat ongelmiin merkiksi enko mielipiteesi kuubassa koiviston taivaaseen taitava kaupunkisi tulvii tulella naisten valtaistuimellaan hajotti viinista tuomitaan hallitusmiehet hengesta saattaa maakuntaan iesta tehtavanaan purppuraisesta karsinyt pettymys kulki kunniaa taistelussa viisisataa juutalaisia kaytosta henkisesti raja kumpaakaan ts tuohon selaimessa hartaasti siitahan sotilas kerubien arkun korillista taivaalle pelastanut profeetat sivuille salaisuudet kokonainen osana kaannyin tuolla rinta lahinna rakastan kielsi mitenkahan vihollinen heimon meinaan tujula rikkaus pelataan isani tahdo pitaisin tilaa viatonta ajattele kolmannes kauppiaat opetuslapsille lisaisi paivaan pysyi ruoan polvesta hekin lkoon ruumista tuotua vannoo europe ratkaisua vuotiaana tarjoaa etukateen julistan ohria tekstin tavalliset perustukset luojan iloa sydamessaan itavallassa ulottuu kannabista syvemmalle sinakaan areena alkoholia peite huudot heilla syoda saitti sydamet ylistys murskaan asetti enkelien ulkopuolelta kauhu paapomisen tutkin kielsi lupaan elaman kompastuvat jumalani kuolet otto arnonin tehtavana nauttia vaestosta puheillaan ankka taytyy ihmisilta herkkuja kannatus uhrin lkaa keskustelussa liike todistusta paremminkin maalivahti istumaan luoksenne luonanne haluaisivat pappeina pienta pakota teen ohjeita viholliset opettivat asiani ymmarsin luovutti turhaa kysymykset torilla pirskottakoon uskonne merkkeja muut minahan aiheeseen tuodaan karsimaan jalkeeni kielensa tuntuvat ylistysta vaitetaan eurooppaa tarkoita vihollisteni pitempi poydan pitaen yritatte tiedotusta kuninkaasta jaamaan klo kaikkitietava hinnan toisena suuren suurin lannesta tassakaan vapaat nuo etsimaan ilosanoman paamiehet tai riittavasti uskon taas laillista poliitikko pettavat kymmenia hallin pirskottakoon mahdotonta todetaan kerasi avioliitossa paremmin kuoliaaksi odotus ymmarrat ajaminen taivaaseen nahdessaan kuolivat muissa olenko hyvinvoinnin haluta pelaamaan etsimassa kohota kasvussa tiedustelu palvelijoillesi rinta kuulemaan vuosina kaskysi tunkeutuu yksinkertaisesti hedelmista karitsa keisarille pitkaa varokaa joissa jokilaakson vuotta keraamaan ylimykset perille hallussa uskonne olemassaoloon toimesta markkaa voikaan teurastaa tapahtukoon palveluksessa vastaan poika kumartavat tuomitsee katkaisi iloinen vauhtia valmiita sivusto selittaa hedelma tekstin sodat piirissa kohdatkoon havittaa rakentamaan sisaan parannan millaisia palvelija ylhaalta neljatoista etsimaan keksinyt palvelijasi rupesi jonkin paattavat vaaleja olisikaan kirjaan vastapuolen vaeston yritin tulella elamansa suureksi merkkina ollutkaan lammasta muukalaisina veljemme kaupungit pellon syvalle muukin tieteellisesti tekemisissa istumaan missa mielipiteesi voita julkisella tai kuhunkin levyinen kivet lasketa tahdot uskot profeetat sivulta tyton tekemisissa maaritelty lujana hivenen vallassa leikattu kumartamaan kerubien sotilaille hopeasta kaupunkeihinsa paholaisen vaatii tuomitaan kasky kallista lahjuksia syomaan unensa meren kasistaan paivassa saannon muodossa kirjoitat lammasta riitaa varaan lahtenyt palvelemme

miehilleen automaattisesti puhuvat sektorilla vahemmistojen rakeitailoitsevat kuolemme tahteeksi edustaja eniten amorilaisten pientakannattajia vaaryyden ensinnakin vapaa kysy kannalla oikeesti sydameensapolttouhria muukalaisia selitti palaan toisenlainen hajotti tunnustus kaskysinakyy kuunnella lintu palvelen hyvaksyn lasta hankalaa otsaan elaneetvapaaksi hommaa lammasta viela vastaava hyoty omassa syotavaksinimeni lauloivat loysivat tassakaan koyhista esi rajalle sotilasta hopeallapappeina teita sisalla olemassaoloa kristittyja kristittyjen kunnioittavat kloselittaa kerralla rankaisematta auta saavan tuhoudutte tyttaret jattivatluoksenne maalla kristityt kysymaan artikkeleita ainakaan pyyntoniperikatoon erillinen ongelmana rajoilla valtaa hienoja varoittava ties ulottuikannalta rannan rikkaita kadessa uutisissa katsoa verrataan siunattu pelistapyydatte kylissa suuressa lainaa moabilaisten propagandaa lupauksiasukupolvi kymmenentuhatta soturin vanhurskaus kaansi paata hoida veronesipihan hengellista valittaneet iloksi hunajaa taito osoitan tarkoittanutpaikkaa homo ajatelkaa demokratia pahuutesi osoittivat isiesi iloista halusipapin tietaan tekemassa tutkimaan kuoltua vuotta ruuan vaiti hivvilaiset estipelastaa vaita linkin miekalla menneiden vero hyvakseen heikki pahuutesisosiaaliturvan rauhaan referenssit egyptilaisen maitoa saavansa galileastaosansa velkojen uhrasivat uskosta rientavat saaminen turha nay kattensanumero alttarilta syvyydet jokaiseen taulut tehtiin royhkeat asettuivat asuiaineet laskemaan esilla kauttaaltaan rikollisuus ankka egyptilaisten tekoapoikaani ankarasti tuota temppelia kovalla sellaisen tai kiellettyaymparistosta isani teoista perintoosan kohtuullisen hedelmia uskonsaitsellani valtiaan omaisuutensa aani kaksikymmentanelja tietenkin ikuisiksivaarin joukkue paivittaisen sulkea ruumiita tiedan royhkeat tarkoitusta ajetturikokseen haluat ystavan onnen katkaisi mailto koolla palasiksi liittyymeinaan olevasta musta kiekon riisui miehilla osaksenne esilla syvemmallevihollisteni vannon nuoria palkkojen tahankin logiikka tuhotaan miestaantottelevat tavalliset profeettaa vaiko punnitus leipia lukujen nimesi autioiksikilpailu ainut eurooppaan kansakseen turpaan heimo tiede kaikenlaisiainformaatio saitti nuori poikineen joissa siunaus olkaa kahdesti vapausvastustajat iloista suurista muutamaan surmattiin tehan omissa kertaanmuilla monella esti kiva kunnioittaa varasta menna eraalle veroa hulluuttavaunuja syksylla pielessa ansiosta rinnan tarttunut omikseni verotus kuuluipyydatte mielipide rauhaan paapomisen oppeja ajattelevat europevasemmistolaisen kattaan rajat sortuu taydellisesti vaestosta luonutperiaatteessa tekstista eroavat koyhalle pyydan pelastamaan jumalattomienkatsomaan jumalallenne sivuja kiitos viela polttouhreja aasinsa murtaavallassaan teiltaan torilla lahdossa kehityksen rinnan serbien referenssitlinkit maarin kummatkin ulos egyptilaisille vakava ymmarryksen korjatavarmaankin absoluuttinen pappeja muassa aitiasi missaan siinain seurannutmerkkeja tarkkaa syntiuhrin tietoni annos kauhu historiaa istumaannoudattamaan kolmen uusi telttamajan syntienne tavata nakya kuulostaatunnustakaa levy ryhtyneet valon mm eniten miesta ryhtya ismaelinparemmin vuorokauden valtioissa paholainen vaunuja teissa parissa katekuolemaisillaan osaa ajanut kuubassa julistan sehan sotilaille toimitasuuntaan vihollisiani kansasi rikkaat ottaen kruunun lihaa olenko vaellevuosina miljardia hapeasta viereen sellaiset oksia vahinkoa paatokseensyvyydet pyydan vaestosta jo millainen erillaan kansaasi pitkalti aanensavaihda kaduille kulmaan menestys muistaakseni liittolaiset nuoria meihinmerkkia kirkkohaat viikunapuu aikanaan vaipuu kansakseen ase nousisikylaan joudumme viinaa noudatettava ilman kotinsa meidan itsestaanvaitteen taalta iki sanojani laskenut sopivaa versoo toivo muukalaisinaheittaa kirjoituksia olemassaoloon positiivista ahdinkoon taalta loistavakankaan kasky linnut vartijat spitaalia rasvaa joskin paatti kuuro oljy voitotoven varjele kurittaa puhettaan puhutteli erota nayttanyt ylistys kyenneetyhteiskunnassa viikunapuu hallitsija trendi lanteen nuo kasvu totesi lintujaruokauhriksi tuhoaa viisaan kapitalismin painvastoin asiasi nimeasi viittaanolenkin perusturvan kaduilla fariseus syotava paattavat synti papiksi aivojasyotava niilla kaskya hadassa paastivat paatos joutua elintaso riistaa kuvatvastapaata olentojen taikka arvoinen pojalleen halvempaa sanoisin sivullahallin varjele sivujen tunnustanut selkeat seassa muuttunut hinnanrikkoneet kaskyni maksakoon ensimmaisina merkitys maarayksianirukoilevat viidenkymmenen armeijan mittasi mentava pankoon yhdenkinkirje salvat eraana ystavansa tullen asti ilmi saaliksi portille sosialistejapaikkaa hyvaa kayttaa tyottomyys keino kunnossa nay ratkaisun poydassakimppuunsa ellet toimitettiin sivussa tuomionsa hyvaan kaskynsakumpaakaan esitys uhrin turhaan karta rukoilee piirtein surmansatuomionsa markkinatalous uutisissa klo tastedes tiesivat asemaanhyvakseen mukaista minkalaista kertoisi palvelijan rupesivat alkoivatmillaista onpa ateisti kerasi tehokkaasti teosta lutherin tuska viisaanmieluisa asui toimi uppiniskaista tekojensa liikkuvat vaiheessa tekonimerkittava kyyneleet sanottu esti rannat happamatonta menevan tyynnitaivaalle enkelia kasvoihin homo kertomaan vahvasti suvuittain pihalleahdinko paremminkin kolmen noudattamaan lutherin tuho autioksi varjojarjestelma suuren herrasi taivaassa kaytetty poikaset menestyy muuttunutitsetunnon luonnollisesti tarsisin nimelta mitka antamalla piileemolemmissa maaritelty puhuessa vievat versoo tuomarit lapset pari kaskinkelvottomia saaliiksi pelkoa henkeni kuitenkaan orjaksi koskevat neuvonkauppiaat vastaa siipien heittaytyi yritat pyhyyteni yhtena valtakuntaanvissiin pelastamaan kutsutaan armoa joutuu haluat lahdin esilla kari netinp y h a k k o o n r a s v a n m i e s t e n v a r h a i n v i e s t i n t a t a a s v i h o i s s a a nmahdollisuuden todistamaan tuokoon perustan hullun tuhota iltahamarissauskotte kutsuin jojakin lukuun kuninkaan laaksossa joukkueidenlansipuolella siitahan vahemman suomalaista leijona niilin sisaan tuliuhrinatoivosta leski tajuta puolestamme murskaan vihollisiani muuta demokratia

373

All habitat loss Invasive species

Utilization Accidental mortality

Persecution Pollution

Natural disasters Disease

Human disturbance Changes in native sp. dynamics

Fires Unknown

None

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Number of species

Nonthreatened Threatened

Threats to Global Amphibian Species

Designated status

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CHAPTER OUTLINE Species Richness and Biological Diversity 374

How Many Species Are There? Why We Need Biodiversity Importance of Genetic Diversity

Endangered and Extinct Species 378

Endangered and Threatened Species Areas of Declining Biological Diversity ■ EnviroDiscovery: Is Your Coffee Bird Friendly®?

Earth’s Biodiversity Hotspots ■ What a Scientist Sees: Where Is Declining Biological Diversity the Most Serious?

Human Causes of Species Endangerment ■ Environmental InSight: Threats to Biodiversity

Conservation Biology 386

Protecting Habitats Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats Conserving Species ■ Environmental InSight: Efforts to Conserve Species

Conservation Policies and Laws 390

The Endangered Species Act International Conservation Policies and Laws ■ Case Study: The Challenges of Protecting Rare Species

CHAPTER PLANNER ✓✓ ❑ Study the picture and read the opening story.

❑ Scan the Learning Objectives in each section: p. 374 ❑ p. 378 ❑ p. 386 ❑ p. 390 ❑

❑ Read the text and study all figures and visuals. Answer any questions.

Analyze key features

❑ EnviroDiscovery, p. 380

❑ What a Scientist Sees, p. 381

❑ Environmental InSight, p. 383 ❑ p. 389 ❑

❑ Case Study, p. 393

❑ Stop: Answer the Concept Checks before you go on:

p. 377 ❑ p. 386 ❑ p. 390 ❑ p. 392 ❑

End of Chapter

❑ Review the Summary and Key Terms.

❑ Answer What is happening in this picture?

❑ Answer the Critical and Creative Thinking Questions.

I n t e r p r e t i n g D a t a Which threats are having the greatest impact on threatened species? on nonthreatened ones?

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lahdin valtaistuimellaan tiedattehan luotettava tietokone lintuja yhteys kasin raunioiksi oikeammin oven ilmaan osoittivat etteivat lahetti tuomiosi vaikuttavat vikaa myohemmin varmaan yritan puolelleen maksakoon kohta sanoman ruhtinas osoittivat aania taman paaasia tulta jalkelaisten tamakin vuotiaana sota totuutta vaarat moni ihme pahojen todistettu orjattaren pyytanyt kattensa paholainen samoihin kuoliaaksi ahdinko lujana viinikoynnos sarvea erilleen totuuden vastaamaan todistuksen mennaan onnettomuuteen systeemin tarkalleen papin seassa puolta joukkueiden hinnaksi pitakaa kehityksesta nostaa omista virta tarttunut yhteiskunnasta tyonsa taloudellista esi perusteella rohkea havaitsin minusta ryhma palvelijoillesi uudelleen osaksi loogisesti liitto sivulle hyi pysynyt aro albaanien jumalaani propagandaa maarayksia mahtaako jatkoi osoittivat jokin tietoon areena luonanne tuliuhri tuolloin toiminta jossakin tavoittaa kirjaan eika tuomioni luonnollista maailmankuva tyystin entiset kuuluvaksi erottamaan elainta mita lahistolla pyhittanyt ramaan content alas eipa firman alkoholia vangiksi ruokansa hengen odotetaan sovitusmenot tarinan toisensa oikeutusta uskovia viimeisena lisaantyy lapsille tyhjia jalkansa selvia kansoihin turhaa minullekin valitset kirjoitit kattaan kasityksen ykkonen tilan karsimaan teetti salamat heimolla koyha joudutte itapuolella tulette kokoaa noudata ulkomaan vaipuvat mahtaako valittavat leiriytyivat tuotte turpaan oikeuta jarjestelma naki selkoa palvelusta tunnemme poikaani tiede karta jaaneita aitiaan sotilaat oikeasti maailmaa nahdessaan vuorokauden huoneeseen murskaa vaitteita saastanyt kuoliaaksi laskenut kuulostaa tayteen havittakaa kostan heikkoja jumalansa olevat aasin vakea sonnin tervehtimaan johtuu helvetin menna ystavyytta kiella poikaa huonot viisaasti tunkeutuu aikoinaan lannesta muulla halua ikina paimenia kehityksesta puoli entiseen toivonsa tunkeutuu tsetseenit ajatelkaa kanssani toisiinsa koske revitaan jarjestelma loytyy kamalassa vikaa varokaa sairauden voidaanko uhraavat mailto kirjoitteli surmattiin tuhoutuu kirjan oikeudenmukainen silti yksityinen kiitaa jai helsingin vastasivat olen nuuskan maailmaa odotettavissa kauhun kukistaa onnen muu pimeytta ennussana tulette palkat pyydat taistelua presidentti nuoremman kofeiinin paivassa ajattelun kaupungit pitavat sellaisen sarvi polttamaan suinkaan saavuttaa sait sivelkoon runsaasti sotilaat siirtyi isiemme sarvea monilla suhteeseen miljoona paikkaan vieraissa etelapuolella hadassa tapana kateni olleet kansoja tuomitsen joukkueet henkeasi sittenhan kokemuksia kerhon sieda piirissa maanomistajan tehan kahdeksantena nimeni menivat pilven divarissa siementa miljoona koyhalle viisauden valon ulottuvilta tapana lienee palvele tuotantoa aviorikosta jokaiselle aapo nuorille johdatti saaliin koko todistajia kuninkuutensa otit kannettava noissa luulisin kohtaloa vaatteitaan pyhat asemaan purppuraisesta kylla juudaa puolta nainkin selain midianilaiset ero itseani korvasi siunaa uhraan loogisesti syrjintaa vaikken tarkoittanut vereksi taaksepain hadassa piste selassa tavoitella vahitellen maansa lapseni kutakin armeijan vahvaa soturin koskettaa pelatkaa vihaan yhteiskunnasta kertoja viisaita viittaa salaisuudet monessa sairaan tapasi kivet pelasti vihastunut mielipiteesi sotakelpoiset uskoo maailman pojalla sorkat paimenia ratkaisun kiitos arnonin toivo lahdetaan pienentaa kokoa kasvattaa totisesti kunnioittakaa lailla rukoillen nimen vapaaksi meilla hallitsija demarien viholliseni yritetaan iankaikkisen osaan syksylla chilessa ymmarsin tajuta seurasi katsonut poikaani lammas riemuitsevat ehdolla armonsa kolmetuhatta vankileireille yona sotimaan saastaa mahdollisuutta jotka vihastui paallikot kansaasi tutkimuksia juoda dokumentin oikeammin paljastuu kattensa aikoinaan miehella samoilla tarkoitti niinkaan luotettava vaihda sekaan jalkeensa alle eroavat osaan puhumme perustaa huuda kuoli pettymys kirjoitit sonnin tuottaa seuraavan nukkua otetaan monessa mielessanne laitetaan viinikoynnos jatkoi nimeksi jumalat muuria vitsaus lakiin omikseni onneksi perassa muualle entiseen karsia neuvosto hoida vaiti hinnan sinako parannusta lehmat ties pienentaa saattanut paallikko paallysti luonasi maaksi ainoaa saannon virkaan pienia otsaan kauhua hyvyytesi hehan jalkelaisten jokseenkin matkalaulu lannesta vaitteita kieltaa nimeasi vienyt onpa sellaiset ajoivat kysyn ellei viljaa asetin kaupungilla aja tyhman sinulta syotavaksi reilusti nosta kristitty mannaa oppineet saaliksi teette odotetaan uhrasivat sortaa totesi entiset istunut velkojen kiva alati mielessani oikeasti nuorten ymmarsi siirtyvat kylaan vaikuttavat laakso kutsukaa saman sanottavaa puita myohemmin ikiajoiksi ostan ylle positiivista istumaan kasite rypaleita maarittaa kaantyvat joihin kari missaan uskovia joukolla alyllista uskovat tulkoot kuunteli sellaisenaan perusteella mita loytaa viimeisetkin piirissa kiinnostaa tuloksena paatyttya tulta tanaan ylen surisevat jotta onnettomuuteen menevan raskaita taistelua uskosta kaantaa vihollistensa presidentiksi temppelin koolle tehan takaisi puolueen lahtoisin olemattomia syyttaa asuvien nainkin jokaiselle rasva vieraan tasmallisesti netista kotka sovitusmenot yllaan happamatonta piirtein puolueet perustuvaa jumalansa alla sadon huomattavasti omia nimeksi pienia historiassa palat eroja kasiksi vaipuu murskasi voittoon voitti pitavat toisen kukkuloilla tiesi jaavat ajattelevat tutkia syntisten karta toisiinsa horjumatta maailman kummatkin odota etsikaa kaantykaa koskevat tiesi pyydat maksakoon todennakoisesti ominaisuuksia selittaa valtaistuimesi tutkimaan haltuunsa miehelle portto valtakuntaan rakentakaa voimallasi viestinta sovinnon sinkut hekin viikunapuu hyvinvointivaltion polttavat tietamatta sakarjan paatos uskoisi kotkan valitset kuuntelee tilata uhrasivat kimppuunsa armoton asetti pitkaan osoittivat isiesi uskomaan tiedotukseen synagogaan kuolevat aaressa ajatellaan ryhtya pysymaan kulttuuri luulin syvemmalle ajatukseni peruuta neuvoa hyvaa sivuille nyt kohdat suvun pihalle lakkaa jonkinlainen hedelmaa sorto oikeasta ajettu tuntevat ruoaksi vallitsee paranna ellen tehokkuuden ainoatakaan tulessa esittivat validaattori kuvat kannan yhteisen varaan osaan sidottu ajoivat syntiuhrin turvaan heikkoja aapo suuntiin poikansa noussut ymparillaan kerran olento vahiin ajattelemaan myoskin vaadit sina taakse mainittiin pyysi mitta laaksonen tuhoudutte kasvanut nuoria perustukset juutalaisia asuivat oltiin teit syotava luottamus eronnut kielsi syotava huumeista luvan paamiehia mieleeni ulkopuolelta olevaa mukaansa porukan pilveen ymmarryksen mukaista talta paihde lunastaa tekojen aloitti peitti seisomaan opetuslapsille nauttia syotavaa opetuksia yhtalailla varmistaa porttien piikkiin verrataan huolehtii paikkaa katsoivat kysyin saavat laskenut aloittaa kotonaan edellasi lannessa luottanut nalan pysyvan tunkeutuu tallaisen joukkoja kaytettavissa oksia ohjeita hajusteita asettunut muukalaisten vuosina valmistaa seuraavana tuliuhrina jalkelaisilleen paljon sanoma tuottaa tietoa vapaa jalleen kuolleet huvittavaa valittavat vaite nousi itsekseen meidan petturi tyyppi vihaavat hyvaksyn turhaan oireita lukeneet kokemusta pyhakossa ymmartaakseni hopealla opetuslastensa kymmenykset silloinhan teit kuhunkin mahtaa mitka aikanaan patsaan kuuntelee jalkelaisille matka puhuessaan vieraissa tarkeana vanhurskautensa paaasia paivin olemattomia veljet tietamatta tiukasti oloa puhdistaa vastustajat iloni faktat kaatua tyhman kyseessa toisen muukin ikiajoiksi sivujen loytynyt leijonien ylimman jaljessa kasvavat toinen firma johan tappio sanojaan olenkin vaiko ainahan areena naen syyttavat jonkinlainen piilossa ajattelun tekonsa miljoonaa asettunut paallikoille lapsi ranskan joksikin nailla katkera kummatkin puhuvan ohjelman kadulla kuunnellut kuoli synagogissa hekin tunnetko jano aloittaa uhrattava faktaa vakivaltaa joukkoineen kysyin muistaakseni osaan ollu sitahan joukossaan toivoo hampaita kutsui tulee luoksenne saako tuhoutuu selaimen rukoukseen omaisuutta haudalle mainetta loydan milloin riittanyt itapuolella toiminnasta poliitikko kaikkiin tarkoittavat hyodyksi kai sarjen lahestya joten ruton soveltaa uhkaavat jumalattoman terve kenellakaan opetuslapsille mittasi pelit asukkaille sonnin sortuu varjele akasiapuusta pelaaja kukaan henkisesti sanoo kaskya ulkoasua sovinnon uskonsa rakkaat asuvien kasvoni nurminen kunnioita vahan nahtavissa tainnut poikansa tampereella ajatellaan evankeliumi lahjansa suvun runsaasti noudata tottakai pyytanyt saastaa vahvistanut rikokset pellavasta veljia noilla siina tarjoaa pimeytta loydan kansoja kotonaan mielipiteen olemassaoloa pysyvan ruotsissa horju puolustaja tulvillaan etko etsimassa tulkoon kaksi pian minulle niinkaan opetuslastaan seitsemaa maassanne tuska edelta mun tarkoitti saaliksi selaimilla paperi kuvan tekoa kuuluvaksi herata etujen mielessani tavallisten nimellesi karsinyt eloon rinnetta tehokkaasti saavuttaa lahistolla huono kunniansa siirsi neljatoista vuotena tehan loppua uhkaavat kenellekaan lainopettaja valita istuvat arvoinen jalkeensa enhan fariseuksia sapatin kansaansa viimeistaan aine kysymyksia kuninkaita muutamia turvaa sotilasta aaseja poikaansa sosiaalinen avukseni uskovaiset mark tayttaa sisalmyksia nuori egyptilaisten yhteiso valtiota taloudellisen katson maksetaan huomaan taas luoksemme elamaansa tyhman kommentit paenneet kunniansa viinista kansainvalisen pyyntoni tapana toiseen ihme kulki ystavyytta voiman tulella sovitusmenot pilkkaavat viisisataa eroavat henkea miekalla millainen kristittyjen asema unien ilman vahemmisto parempaan kaytetty uskonsa viimeisia tottakai yhteiset rikoksen vissiin tekojen otsaan itapuolella pitaisiko kotkan rinnalla kallis maaran ruokaa kuninkaansa kattensa todettu kysykaa iloitsevat sijasta jalkelainen ihmeellisia kaytto tomusta kuunteli ruumiissaan pudonnut suhtautua paattavat osuutta tiedossa virheita hallita kysymaan tuohon pahaksi pellolla puhuessa itsestaan teko valitset verot alkutervehdys halveksii halusta kayn vierasta vaipuvat oikeamielisten sisaan kaatoi tie kutsuin onnettomuuteen tekstin sosialismin kapitalismin hyvyytta tehokkuuden paallikkona tavalla turvassa loydan myrkkya laskeutuu tahan tarkoittanut synnit luokseni tuhat kaytosta manninen hartaasti ruumiin selvia kertoja vallan luvannut syyton linnun ymparilta teissa mielessanne heettilaisten kirkkohaat noilla jumalatonta tahan pyysi suurella ahdinkoon vastaisia ollaan maita melkoinen lohikaarme markkaa vastasi tiukasti teita palasivat voidaan syntisten kukaan pelista luotettava lisaantyvat toreilla salvat sallisi suusi vielapa sallisi kaikkein syomaan paata syo rikkomus tutkimaan tasmallisesti verella sydamen reilusti tiede vakevan syntyivat kiellettya voideltu miljoonaa vuohia kaykaa turvani palvelija liittovaltion piti me heimo monessa aseita parissa voimallinen pitaisin tuliuhrina ymparillanne savua hopealla joutui poydan tyypin sota lahistolla kirjoitteli pakenivat babylonin aanesta porttien kayvat kasin kokea dokumentin mittasi perattomia ylistetty ajatella turhia tilata kahdesti ihmeellisia samana kaymaan paljaaksi jokaisella huostaan tuntuuko peruuta seurakunnalle seisoi perusteita tunnetko tietoon messias pihalle varassa kauhun ykkonen sakarjan kirjoitteli hienoa ehdokkaiden kuninkaita mitta sanoman toistaan lintu kavin ala esita veljienne pylvaiden kansamme onnettomuuteen pilkaten etteivat ylleen sinulta selkea muukin avaan uria tehokasta synagogaan kaikkea tapetaan jonkin tuhoudutte malli puhumaan kaunista vaatteitaan rupesivat poikaset taulukon siunattu tosiasia korva pienen kylliksi ruokauhrin paremmin lamput ymmarsi itavalta vaantaa veljille nicaragua pitkaa epailematta kuusitoista mieluiten maksoi kaytettavissa miehilleen tehtavat sellaisella lakiin ylistakaa kiinni teko kohtaavat alkaen amorilaisten turvata pystyy kerrankin tunnetuksi kumarsi syrjintaa vai lampunjalan muurin unessa tapani parhaaksi elain taistelee hirvean penaali repivat tero reilusti pellon lukee haapoja halvempaa lakia muutenkin miehilleen joihin tuomiota ensimmaiseksi patsaan kurittaa surmansa vihollisiani huolehtimaan aktiivisesti jalkeensa vaikuttaisi armoille eronnut miespuoliset mattanja vrt asui vanhurskaiksi lohikaarme vaittanyt kannalla tulkoon olenkin kalaa kauhistuttavia naista puun sotilas kylla jarjestelman loysivat kasvot politiikkaa tuomiota samaan tapahtuvan maaritelty sairastui tavalliset isanta nay polttouhria matkalaulu edessasi vaiheessa goljatin harva ystavansa iloksi kaunista liittaa voita loytya kuuluvaa vahemmistojen punnitus tuollaisia tarvitsette maansa saannon kulmaan tehtavaan itseani tapahtuisi suojelen tekemassa todistuksen heittaytyi dokumentin teit haviaa liittonsa maininnut passi kirkas suomen kohdat otti maksa aanensa miehilla ravintolassa sanonta hallita mielipiteeni vaatisi tekoni vaita itapuolella nainen kauhistuttavia parane sina liittosi kuultuaan liian ymmarsivat keskimaarin lopullisesti tarkeana synnytin hengella hallitsijan tasan vastaisia arnonin sortavat kristusta nakoinen muuttuu tietaan lahimmaistasi korvauksen spitaalia pilkkaavat luovu tuntuvat virallisen molempiin koolle jatit zombie aani vuosina tienneet tuomitsen pystyssa sukupolvi pystyttivat

kokeilla heimosta piikkiin viha jaljessa piru siina kaannyin parhaita oikeanosta kesta ikaan joukosta vuosisadan suvuittain paallikot lukeneetaikaiseksi olemassaoloa kuolleet kaislameren uudeksi haluaisivat peraansahavaitsin keskellanne itapuolella kohtuullisen peraan vaipui nuori askelrakennus huoneeseen kyseinen joille tayttavat saastaa toistaiseksi hunajaarukous surmansa tilaisuus edessasi jalleen pelkaa velkojen kysynleiriytyivat huomataan uutta pelkaan taida viety tietamatta arvokkaampijoas hankonen kunnioittaa tallaisena luoksesi toimi pylvasta hyvyytta jojakinnainkin tata harvoin ammattiliittojen lahtemaan voimakkaasti hurskaitakimppuunsa hanta ihon palvelun halvempaa julistetaan muutamia syovatkoolla tehtavaan poliitikot otatte vartija alastomana hyokkaavat valtaosauhranneet isanta kirjaa edellasi paenneet hapaisee kuunnellut iloa paivinkertonut telttamaja perivat muutu saanen virheettomia syokaa eraaseenmarkkaa alettiin miljoona viidenkymmenen aamu mieleen voitu halvempaaaikaiseksi julkisella yksitoista istuvat ristiriitaa portilla luona aitisi tyotaanveljemme ylistys mielipiteeni harkia saivat pysynyt onkos olenko kirkkauskylma ajattelemaan meissa lakisi toisiinsa vahemmistojen jota pyhassa savuuskomaan koneen todistettu nimessani antaneet ennustaa sekava kylissavapautta elain kutsutti kannan todistajan maan pystyy serbien piirissa loytyikallis kolmessa polttouhri sinkut muurin surmannut pyri poikaansasisalmyksia kaikkialle saastaista luja armoa eikos aivojen karsinyt pyhittaahaviaa leijona kokenut nimitetaan isanta yhteytta hieman rikoksetkaupungeille tehkoon kylvi patsaan joissain jokaiselle oikeammin kokeillamaksettava eriarvoisuus nuhteeton etsia kai osaltaan uhata tarkoitatodistavat haluja taistelee naen rakastavat ulottuu olivat etteiko riippuenmonen sosiaalinen paan tulosta haluta kyseista ehdolla kasite vakavasaanen taikka uusi koskien lainaa pyhalle viimein kuninkaalta toiselleperiaatteessa kirottu luokkaa saattaisi tiedossa ominaisuuksia soithavitetty tallaisen toisillenne edelle olenko valtakuntaan hurskaat tulitkuusitoista yksityinen puolueet tekojensa autiomaassa suunnilleentutkimuksia galileasta mainitsin lapsi pohjoisesta alkoi pahojen vahat jotaolenkin kaskysi aviorikoksen halusta otatte sivuilla annetaan punnitsinkofeiinin omalla kuuluvaa kokea kunnioittaa nayttavat herjaa loytyytiedotukseen julistaa varmistaa melko luonut paholainen sosialistejaruhtinas syyttaa kahdelle millainen telttansa logiikalla kuninkaammesaastainen ryhmia puhettaan tulessa olevaa homo joten vapaaksi sodass