Full-Length Chapters Available In Launchpad!
BRIEF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL, SCIENCE, AND INFORMATION LITERACY
CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY AND THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY 2 ON THE ROAD TO COLLAPSE
CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE LITERACY AND THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE 22 SCIENCE AND THE SKY
CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION LITERACY AND TOXICOLOGY 42 TOXIC BOTTLES?
HUMAN POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CHAPTER 4 HUMAN POPULATIONS 62 ONE-CHILD CHINA GROWS UP
CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 80 ERADICATING A PARASITIC NIGHTMARE
CONSUMPTION AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
CHAPTER 6 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS AND CONSUMPTION 98 WALL TO WALL, CRADLE TO CRADLE
CHAPTER 7 MANAGING SOLID WASTE 118 A PLASTIC SURF
ECOLOGY
CHAPTER 8 ECOSYSTEMS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING 138 ENGINEERING EARTH
CHAPTER 9 POPULATION ECOLOGY 158 THE WOLF WATCHERS
CHAPTER 10 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY 176 WHAT THE STORK SAYS
EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER 11 EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION 198 A TROPICAL MURDER MYSTERY
CHAPTER 12 BIODIVERSITY 218 PALM PLANET
CHAPTER 13 PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY 238 A FOREST WITHOUT ELEPHANTS
WATER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 14 FRESHWATER RESOURCES 258 TOILET TO TAP
CHAPTER 15 WATER POLLUTION 278 INTO THE GULF
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Full-Length Chapters Available In Launchpad! FOOD RESOURCES
CHAPTER 16 FEEDING THE WORLD 298 A GENE REVOLUTION
CHAPTER 17 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE: RAISING CROPS 316 FARMING LIKE AN ECOSYSTEM
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY: FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 18 COAL 338 BRINGING DOWN THE MOUNTAIN
CHAPTER 19 OIL AND NATURAL GAS 360 THE BAKKEN OIL BOOM
AIR POLLUTION: CONSEQUENCES OF USING FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 20 AIR POLLUTION 380 THE YOUNGEST SCIENTISTS
CHAPTER 21 CLIMATE CHANGE 402 WHEN THE TREES LEAVE
ALTERNATIVES TO FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 22 NUCLEAR POWER 428 THE FUTURE OF FUKUSHIMA
CHAPTER 23 SUN, WIND, WATER, AND EARTH ENERGY 450 FUELED BY THE SUN
SUSTAINABLE LIVING IN COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 24 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 470 COUNTERFEIT COOLING
CHAPTER 25 URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES 490 THE GHETTO GOES GREEN
ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS AVAILABLE ONLINE IN LAUNCHPAD!
CHAPTER 26 MINERAL RESOURCES: NO STONE UNTURNED CHAPTER 27 SOIL RESOURCES AND GRASSLANDS: RESTORING THE RANGE CHAPTER 28 FORESTS: RETURNING TREES TO HAITI CHAPTER 29 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS: ACID OCEANS CHAPTER 30 AGRICULTURE: RAISING LIVESTOCK: A CARNIVORE’S CONUNDRUM CHAPTER 31 FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: FISH IN A WAREHOUSE? CHAPTER 32 BIOFUELS: GAS FROM GRASS
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© Tyler Hicks/The New York Times/
Redux
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FOR A CHANGING WORLD
SECOND EDITION
SUSAN KARR Carson-Newman University
JENEEN INTERLANDI Science Writer
ANNE HOUTMAN California State University, Bakersfield
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IV
SUUSTS AIA NAN BILILITYT PLELEDGEE MMacmillan is s cocommm itteted too llesesseseniingg oour compmpany’s s imimpapactct on ththee enenviviroron n ment. TThe MaMacmc ilillan n fafamim ly oof f publblisishihingng hhouses s s inintetends too rededuce e ouo r 20020 CO2 emissions by 664% agaaininst aa 220009 baseline.
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JAMES P. BLAIR/National Geographic
Creative
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V
BRIEF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL, SCIENCE, AND INFORMATION LITERACY
CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY AND THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY 2 ON THE ROAD TO COLLAPSE
CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE LITERACY AND THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE 22 SCIENCE AND THE SKY
CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION LITERACY AND TOXICOLOGY 42 TOXIC BOTTLES?
HUMAN POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CHAPTER 4 HUMAN POPULATIONS 62 ONE-CHILD CHINA GROWS UP
CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 80 ERADICATING A PARASITIC NIGHTMARE
CONSUMPTION AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
CHAPTER 6 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS AND CONSUMPTION 98 WALL TO WALL, CRADLE TO CRADLE
CHAPTER 7 MANAGING SOLID WASTE 118 A PLASTIC SURF
ECOLOGY
CHAPTER 8 ECOSYSTEMS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING 138 ENGINEERING EARTH
CHAPTER 9 POPULATION ECOLOGY 158 THE WOLF WATCHERS
CHAPTER 10 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY 176 WHAT THE STORK SAYS
EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER 11 EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION 198 A TROPICAL MURDER MYSTERY
CHAPTER 12 BIODIVERSITY 218 PALM PLANET
CHAPTER 13 PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY 238 A FOREST WITHOUT ELEPHANTS
WATER RESOURCES
CHAPTER 14 FRESHWATER RESOURCES 258 TOILET TO TAP
CHAPTER 15 WATER POLLUTION 278 INTO THE GULF
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VI
FOOD RESOURCES
CHAPTER 16 FEEDING THE WORLD 298 A GENE REVOLUTION
CHAPTER 17 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE: RAISING CROPS 316 FARMING LIKE AN ECOSYSTEM
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY: FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 18 COAL 338 BRINGING DOWN THE MOUNTAIN
CHAPTER 19 OIL AND NATURAL GAS 360 THE BAKKEN OIL BOOM
AIR POLLUTION: CONSEQUENCES OF USING FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 20 AIR POLLUTION 381 THE YOUNGEST SCIENTISTS
CHAPTER 21 CLIMATE CHANGE 402 WHEN THE TREES LEAVE
ALTERNATIVES TO FOSSIL FUELS
CHAPTER 22 NUCLEAR POWER 428 THE FUTURE OF FUKUSHIMA
CHAPTER 23 SUN, WIND, WATER, AND EARTH ENERGY 450 FUELED BY THE SUN
SUSTAINABLE LIVING IN COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 24 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 470 COUNTERFEIT COOLING
CHAPTER 25 URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES 490 THE GHETTO GOES GREEN
ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS AVAILABLE ONLINE IN
CHAPTER 26 MINERAL RESOURCES: NO STONE UNTURNED CHAPTER 27 SOIL RESOURCES AND GRASSLANDS: RESTORING THE RANGE CHAPTER 28 FORESTS: RETURNING TREES TO HAITI CHAPTER 29 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS: ACID OCEANS CHAPTER 30 AGRICULTURE: RAISING LIVESTOCK: A CARNIVORE’S CONUNDRUM CHAPTER 31 FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: FISH IN A WAREHOUSE? CHAPTER 32 BIOFUELS: GAS FROM GRASS
APPENDIX 1 BASIC MATH SKILLS A-2 APPENDIX 2 DATA-HANDLING AND GRAPHING SKILLS A-4 APPENDIX 3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS A-10 APPENDIX 4 GEOLOGY A-12 APPENDIX 5 SELECTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS A-14 GLOSSARY G-2 CREDITS/SOURCES C-2 INDEX I-1
B R I E F C O N T E N T S
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DETAILED CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL, SCIENCE, AND INFORMATION LITERACY
CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY AND THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY 2 ON THE ROAD TO COLLAPSE What lessons can we learn from a vanished Viking society?
Environmental science is all encompassing. 4
INFOGRAPHIC 1.1 Environmental Science Is Highly Interdisciplinary 5 1.2 Different Approaches to Science Have Different Goals and Outcomes 6 1.3 Wicked Problems 7
The Greenland Vikings’ demise was caused by natural events and human choices. 6
Responding to environmental problems and working with neighbors help a society cope with changes. 8
Humans are an environmental force that impacts Earth’s ecosystems. 9
INFOGRAPHIC 1.4 Many Environmental Problems Can be Traced to Three Underlying Causes 10
Ecosystems are naturally sustainable and a good model for human societies hoping to become more sustainable. 11
INFOGRAPHIC 1.5 Four Characteristics of a Sustainable Ecosystem 11 1.6 Sustainable Ecosystems Can be a Useful Model for Human Societies 12
Humanity faces some challenges in dealing with environmental issues. 13
INFOGRAPHIC 1.7 Social Traps 14 1.8 Wealth Inequality 15 1.9 Worldviews and Environmental Ethics 16 1.10 U.S. Environmental History 18
CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE LITERACY AND THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE 22 SCIENCE AND THE SKY Solving the mystery of disappearing ozone
Science gives us tools to observe and make sense of the natural world. 24
INFOGRAPHIC 2.1 The Atmosphere and UV Radiation 27
Scientifi c views rarely change overnight. 27
The scientifi c method systematically rules out explanations. 28
INFOGRAPHIC 2.2 Ozone Depletion and CFC Levels 28 2.3 Scientifi c Process 30 2.4 Certainty in Science 31
Diff erent types of studies amass a body of evidence. 30
INFOGRAPHIC 2.5 The Chemistry of Ozone Formation and Breakdown 32 2.6 How Do Scientists Collect Evidence to Answer Questions? 34
Multiple ozone depletion hypotheses were tested but only the CFC hypothesis was confi rmed. 35
The international community got together to meet the problem head on. 36
INFOGRAPHIC 2.7 The Montreal Protocol and Its Amendments Have Been Effective 37
CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION LITERACY AND TOXICOLOGY 42 TOXIC BOTTLES? On the trail of chemicals in our everyday lives
We live in an environment full of toxic substances. 44
Regulation happens even in the face of change. 45
Information sources vary in their reliability. 46
INFOGRAPHIC 3.1 Information Sources 47
What are the dangers presented by toxics, and how do we determine safe exposure levels? 47
VII
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VIII
INFOGRAPHIC 3.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnifi cation 48 3.3 BPA Studies 50 3.4 Factors That Affect Toxicity 52
Endocrine disruptors cause big problems at small doses. 52
INFOGRAPHIC 3.5 How Hormones Work 53 3.6 Dose-Response Curves 54
Critical thinking gives us the tools to uncover logical fallacies in arguments or claims. 55
TABLE 3.1 Common Logical Fallacies 56
Risk assessments help determine safe exposure levels. 58
HUMANS POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
CHAPTER 4 HUMAN POPULATIONS 62 ONE-CHILD CHINA GROWS UP A country faces the outcomes of radical population control
Human populations grew slowly at fi rst and then at a much faster rate in recent years. 64
INFOGRAPHIC 4.1 Human Population Through History 64 4.2 Population Distribution 66 4.3 Age Structure Affects Future Population Growth 67
Fertility rates are aff ected by a variety of factors. 68
INFOGRAPHIC 4.4 We Live In Two Demographic Worlds 69
Factors that decrease the death rate can also decrease overall population growth rates. 70
INFOGRAPHIC 4.5 Demographic Transition 71 4.6 Declining Population Growth Rates 72 4.7 Reaching Zero Population Growth 74
The age and gender composition of a population aff ects more than just its potential for growth. 73
Carrying capacity: Is zero population growth enough? 75
INFOGRAPHIC 4.8 How Many People Can Earth Support? 76
What awaits China’s generation of Little Emperors? 77
CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 80 ERADICATING A PARASITIC NIGHTMARE Human health is intricately linked to the environment
Human manipulation of the environment can increase our exposure to pathogens. 83
INFOGRAPHIC 5.1 Types of Environmental Hazards 85
Public health programs seek to improve community health. 84
INFOGRAPHIC 5.2 Public Health Problems Seek to Improve Health of the Population as a Whole 86 5.3 Environmental Factors Contribute to the Global Burden of Disease 87 5.4 A Variety of Pathogens Cause Disease 88
Addressing biological hazards requires environmental and behavioral changes. 88
INFOGRAPHIC 5.5 Guinea Worm Infection and Eradication Programs 90
The factors that aff ect human health diff er signifi cantly between more and less developed nations. 90
Environmentally mediated diseases can be mitigated with funding, support, and education. 91
INFOGRAPHIC 5.6 Death Rates and Leading Causes of Death Differ Among Nations 92
TABLE 5.1 Reducing Environmental Health Hazards 93
INFOGRAPHIC 5.7 Eradicating Guinea Worm Disease 94
CONSUMPTION AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
CHAPTER 6 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS AND CONSUMPTION 98 WALL TO WALL, CRADLE TO CRADLE A leading carpet company takes a chance on going green
Businesses and individuals impact the environment with their economic decisions. 101
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IX
INFOGRAPHIC 6.1 Value of Ecosystem Services 101 6.2 Ecological Footprint 103 6.3 Capital and Interest 104 6.4 The IPAT Equation 105
Mainstream economics supports some actions that are not sustainable. 105
INFOGRAPHIC 6.5 True Cost Accounting 107 6.6 Economic Models 108 6.7 Cradle-to-Cradle Management 110
Businesses can learn a great deal about how to be sustainable from nature. 111
INFOGRAPHIC 6.8 Product Versus Service Economy 113
There are many tactics for achieving sustainability 112
CHAPTER 7 MANAGING SOLID WASTE 118 A PLASTIC SURF Are the oceans teeming with trash?
Waste is a uniquely human invention, generated by uniquely human activities. 121
INFOGRAPHIC 7.1 U.S. Municipal Solid Waste Stream 123
How big is the Atlantic Garbage Patch, and is it growing? 123
How we handle waste determines where it ends up. 124
INFOGRAPHIC 7.2 Municipal Solid Waste Disposal 125 7.3 How It Works: An Incinerator 127
Solid waste pollution threatens all living things. 127
INFOGRAPHIC 7.4 Plastic Trash Affects Wildlife 128
Some waste is hazardous and needs to be handled carefully. 129
INFOGRAPHIC 7.5 Household Hazardous Wastes 130
When it comes to managing waste, the best solutions mimic nature. 130
INFOGRAPHIC 7.6 Composting 131
Life-cycle analysis and better design can help reduce waste. 130
INFOGRAPHIC 7.7 Industrial Ecology 132
Consumers have a role to play, too. 132
INFOGRAPHIC 7.8 The Four Rs Help You Reduce Waste 134
ECOLOGY
CHAPTER 8 ECOSYSTEMS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING 138 ENGINEERING EARTH An ambitious attempt to replicate Earth’s life support systems falls short
Organisms and their habitats form complex systems. 140
INFOGRAPHIC 8.1 Organization of Life: From Biosphere to Individual 142 8.2 Habitat and Niche 143 8.3 Earth Is a Closed System for Matter but Not for Energy 143 8.4 Global Terrestrial Biomes 144 8.5 Map of Biosphere 2 147
Living things survive within a specifi c range of environmental conditions. 146
INFOGRAPHIC 8.6 Range of Tolerance for Life 148
Nutrients such as carbon cycle through ecosystems. 149
INFOGRAPHIC 8.7 Carbon Cycles via Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 150 8.8 The Carbon Cycle 151 8.9 The Nitrogen Cycle 152 8.10 The Phosphorus Cycle 153
Ecosystems are irreplaceable, but learning how they function will help us restore degraded ones. 155
CHAPTER 9 POPULATION ECOLOGY 158 THE WOLF WATCHERS Endangered gray wolves return to the American West
Populations fl uctuate in size and have varied distributions. 161
INFOGRAPHIC 9.1 Population Distribution Patterns 163
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X
Populations display various patterns of growth. 164
INFOGRAPHIC 9.2 Exponential Growth Occurs When There Are No Limits to Growth 165 9.3 Logistic Population Growth 166
A variety of factors aff ect population growth. 166
INFOGRAPHIC 9.4 Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors Affect Population Size 167 9.5 Life History Strategies 168 9.6 Some Populations Fluctuate in Size Over Time 169
The loss of the wolf emphasized the importance of an ecosystem’s top predator. 169
INFOGRAPHIC 9.7 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Regulation 171
CHAPTER 10 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY 176 WHAT THE STORK SAYS A bird species in the Everglades reveals the intricacies of a threatened ecosystem
The well-being of a species depends on the health of its ecosystem. 178
Human alterations have changed the face of the Everglades. 180
Matter and energy move through a community via the food web. 181
INFOGRAPHIC 10.1 Everglades Food Web 181 10.2 Trophic Pyramid 183
Communities, such as the ones found in the Everglades, are shaped by biotic and abiotic factors. 183
INFOGRAPHIC 10.3 Species Diversity Includes Richness and Evenness 185 10.4 Mangrove Edges 186 10.5 Edge Effects 187
Changing community structure changes community composition 186
INFOGRAPHIC 10.6 Keystone Species Support Entire Ecosystems 188
Species interactions are extremely important for community viability. 189
INFOGRAPHIC 10.7 Species Interactions 190
Ecologists and engineers help repair ecosystems. 191
INFOGRAPHIC 10.8 The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan 193
Community composition changes over time as the physical features of the ecosystem itself change. 192
INFOGRAPHIC 10.9 Ecological Succession 194
EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER 11 EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION 198 A TROPICAL MURDER MYSTERY Finding the missing birds of Guam
Natural selection is the main mechanism by which populations adapt and evolve. 201
INFOGRAPHIC 11.1 Natural Selection at Work 203
Populations need genetic
