Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues
D O I N G E T H I C S
‘’ Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues
Fourth Edition
Lewis Vaughn
BW. W. NORTON & COMPANY Independent and Employee-Owned New York . London
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W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
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C O N T E N T S
‘’ P R E F A C E xvi i
PART 1: FUNDAMENTALS
CHAPTER 1 Ethics and the Examined Life 3
The Ethical Landscape 5
The Elements of Ethics 6
The Preeminence of Reason 6
QUICK REVIEW 7
The Universal Perspective 7
The Principle of Impartiality 8
The Dominance of Moral Norms 8
Religion and Morality 8
Believers Need Moral Reasoning 9
When Conflicts Arise, Ethics Steps In 9
CRITICAL THOUGHT: ETHICS, RELIGION, AND TOUGH MORAL ISSUES 10
Moral Philosophy Enables Productive Discourse 10
Summary 12
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 12
READINGS
from What Is the Socratic Method? by Christopher Phillips 13
from The Euthyphro by Plato 16
CHAPTER 2 Subjectivism, Relativism, and Emotivism 20
Subjective Relativism 21
QUICK REVIEW 21
JUDGE NOT? 22
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Cultural Relativism 23
CRITICAL THOUGHT: “FEMALE CIRCUMCISION” AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM 24
Emotivism 28
Summary 30
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 31
READINGS
from Anthropology and the Abnormal by Ruth Benedict 32
Trying Out One’s New Sword by Mary Midgley 35
PART 2: MORAL REASONING
CHAPTER 3 Evaluating Moral Arguments 41
Claims and Arguments 41
Arguments Good and Bad 43
CRITICAL THOUGHT: THE MORALITY OF CRITICAL THINKING 44
Implied Premises 47
QUICK REVIEW 47
Deconstructing Arguments 48
Moral Statements and Arguments 51
Testing Moral Premises 53
Assessing Nonmoral Premises 55
QUICK REVIEW 55
Avoiding Bad Arguments 56
Begging the Question 56
Equivocation 56
Appeal to Authority 57
Slippery Slope 57
APPEAL TO EMOTION 57
Faulty Analogy 58
Appeal to Ignorance 58
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Straw Man 59
Appeal to the Person 59
Hasty Generalization 59
QUICK REVIEW 60
Writing and Speaking about Moral Issues 60
Summary 62
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions / Argument Exercises 62
PART 3: THEORIES OF MORALITY
CHAPTER 4 The Power of Moral Theories 67
Theories of Right and Wrong 67
MORAL THEORIES VERSUS MORAL CODES 68
Major Theories 69
Consequentialist Theories 69
Nonconsequentialist Theories 70
QUICK REVIEW 71
Evaluating Theories 72
Criterion 1: Consistency with Considered Judgments 73
CONSIDERED MORAL JUDGMENTS 73
Criterion 2: Consistency with Our Moral Experiences 74
CRITICAL THOUGHT: A 100 PERCENT ALL-NATURAL THEORY 74
Criterion 3: Usefulness in Moral Problem Solving 75
QUICK REVIEW 75
Summary 76
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 76
CHAPTER 5 CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES: MAXIMIZE THE GOOD 78
Ethical Egoism 78
Applying the Theory 79
Evaluating the Theory 80
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CAN ETHICAL EGOISM BE ADVOCATED? 82
QUICK REVIEW 84
Utilitarianism 84
Applying the Theory 88
PETER SINGER, UTILITARIAN 88
QUICK REVIEW 89
Evaluating the Theory 89
Learning from Utilitarianism 93
CRITICAL THOUGHT: CROSS-SPECIES TRANSPLANTS: WHAT WOULD A UTILITARIAN DO? 94
Summary 94
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 95
READING
from Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill 96
CHAPTER 6 Nonconsequentialist Theories: Do Your Duty 102
Kant’s Ethics 102
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SIZING UP THE GOLDEN RULE 104
Applying the Theory 106
Evaluating the Theory 106
THE KANTIAN VIEW OF PUNISHMENT 107
Learning from Kant’s Theory 109
Natural Law Theory 109
Applying the Theory 111
QUICK REVIEW 111
CRITICAL THOUGHT: DOUBLE EFFECT AND THE “TROLLEY PROBLEM” 112
Evaluating the Theory 113
Learning from Natural Law 114
Summary 114
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 115
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READINGS
from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals by Immanuel Kant 116
from Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas 125
CHAPTER 7 Virtue Ethics: Be a Good Person 136
The Ethics of Virtue 136
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LEARNING VIRTUES IN THE CLASSROOM 137
Virtue in Action 138
Evaluating Virtue Ethics 138
CRITICAL THOUGHT: WARRIOR VIRTUES AND MORAL DISAGREEMENTS 140
The Ethics of Care 141
QUICK REVIEW 141
Learning from Virtue Ethics 141
FEMINIST ETHICS 142
Summary 143
Exercises: Review Questions / Discussion Questions 144
READINGS
from Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle 145
The Need for More Than Justice by Annette C. Baier 153
PART 4: ETHICAL ISSUES
CHAPTER 8 Abortion 163
Issue File: Background 163
ABORTION IN THE UNITED STATES: FACTS AND FIGURES 164
MAJORITY OPINION IN ROE V. WADE 166
Moral Theories 166
ABORTION AND THE SCRIPTURES 168
QUICK REVIEW 169
Moral Arguments 169
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LATE-TERM ABORTIONS 170
Summary 174
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READINGS
A Defense of Abortion by Judith Jarvis Thomson 175
On the Moral and Legal Status of Abortion by Mary Anne Warren 185
Why Abortion Is Immoral by Don Marquis 194
Virtue Theory and Abortion by Rosalind Hursthouse 205
Cases for Analysis 211
CHAPTER 9 Altering Genes and Cloning Humans 213
Issue File: Background 213
GENE THERAPY: SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 216
Moral Theories 218
CRITICAL THOUGHT: LONGER LIFE THROUGH GENE THERAPY? 219
Moral Arguments 219
QUICK REVIEW 221
Summary 221
READINGS
Genetic Enhancement by Walter Glannon 222
Is Gene Therapy a Form of Eugenics? by John Harris 226
The Wisdom of Repugnance by Leon R. Kass 232
Cloning Human Beings: An Assessment of the Ethical Issues Pro and Con by Dan W. Brock 249
Cases for Analysis 260
CHAPTER 10 Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide 263
THE DEATH OF KAREN ANN QUINLAN 264
Issue File: Background 264
LANDMARK COURT RULINGS 266
QUICK REVIEW 267
Moral Theories 267
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CRITICAL THOUGHT: DR. KEVORKIAN AND PHYSICIAN-ASSISTED SUICIDE 269
Moral Arguments 269
PUBLIC OPINION AND EUTHANASIA 271
Summary 273
READINGS
Active and Passive Euthanasia by James Rachels 274
The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia by J. Gay-Williams 278
From Voluntary Active Euthanasia by Dan W. Brock 281
Euthanasia by Philippa Foot 289
Killing and Allowing to Die by Daniel Callahan 304
Cases for Analysis 306
CHAPTER 11 Capital Punishment 310
Issue File: Background 310
Moral Theories 312
CRITICAL THOUGHT: MEDICATED FOR THE DEATH PENALTY 313
QUICK REVIEW 315
CRITICAL THOUGHT: BOTCHED EXECUTIONS 316
Moral Arguments 318
CRITICAL THOUGHT: DIFFERENT CASES, SAME PUNISHMENT 319
Summary 320
READINGS
The Ultimate Punishment: A Defense by Ernest van den Haag 321
from Justice, Civilization, and the Death Penalty: Answering van den Haag by Jeffrey H. Reiman 326
Against the Death Penalty: The Minimal Invasion Argument by Hugo Adam Bedau 332
In Defense of the Death Penalty by Louis P. Pojman 337
Cases for Analysis 347
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CHAPTER 12 Drug Use, Harm, and Personal Liberty 350
Issue File: Background 351
DIVERSE VIEWS IN THE UNITED STATES ON USING MARIJUANA 352
Moral Theories 353
CRITICAL THOUGHT: DOES LEGALIZING MEDICAL MARIJUANA ENCOURAGE USE AMONG TEENAGERS? 354
Moral Arguments 354
QUICK REVIEW 356
Summary 357
READINGS
The Ethics of Addiction by Thomas Szasz 357
The Fallacy of the “Hijacked Brain” by Peg O’Connor 366
Against the Legalization of Drugs by James Q. Wilson 368
Cases for Analysis 377
CHAPTER 13 Sexual Morality 380
Issue File: Background 380
VITAL STATS: SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 381
Moral Theories 382
Moral Arguments 383
VITAL STATS: SEX AND RELATIONSHIPS 384
QUICK REVIEW 385
Summary 386
READINGS
Plain Sex by Alan H. Goldman 386
Sexual Morality by Roger Scruton 395
Sexual Perversion by Thomas Nagel 402
Feminists against the First Amendment by Wendy Kaminer 409
“The Price We Pay?”: Pornography and Harm by Susan J. Brison 416
Cases for Analysis 426
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CHAPTER 14 Same-Sex Marriage 429
Issue File: Background 429
Moral Theories 430
OPINION POLLS: SAME-SEX MARRIAGE 431
VITAL STATS: GAYS, LESBIANS, AND SAME-SEX COUPLES 432
Moral Arguments 432
QUICK REVIEW 433
Summary 433
READINGS
On Gay Rights by Richard D. Mohr 434
What Marriage Is For: Children Need Mothers and Fathers by Maggie Gallagher 442
Here Comes the Groom: A (Conservative) Case for Gay Marriage by Andrew Sullivan 446
Cases for Analysis 449
CHAPTER 15 Environmental Ethics 451
Issue File: Background 451
SOME MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 454
Moral Theories 456
QUICK REVIEW 456
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD PANDAS PAY THE PRICE? 457
Moral Arguments 458
Summary 460
READINGS
People or Penguins by William F. Baxter 461
The Ethics of Respect for Nature by Paul W. Taylor 465
Are All Species Equal? by David Schmidtz 480
The Land Ethic by Aldo Leopold 488
Cases for Analysis 492
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CHAPTER 16 Animal Rights 495
Issue File: Background 496
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD WE ABOLISH DOG RACING? 498
Moral Theories 499
CRITICAL THOUGHT: SHOULD WE EXPERIMENT ON ORPHANED BABIES? 501
QUICK REVIEW 502
Moral Arguments 502
Summary 504
READINGS
All Animals Are Equal by Peter Singer 505
The Case for Animal Rights by Tom Regan 515
Difficulties with the Strong Animal Rights Position by Mary Anne Warren 522
Speciesism and the Idea of Equality by Bonnie Steinbock 528
Cases for Analysis 535
CHAPTER 17 Political Violence: War, Terrorism, and Torture 539
Issue File: Background 539
CRITICAL THOUGHT: PREEMPTIVE WAR ON IRAQ 542
CRITICAL THOUGHT: TERRORISTS OR FREEDOM FIGHTERS? 549
Moral Theories 550
Moral Arguments 552
QUICK REVIEW 556
Summary 557
READINGS
Reconciling Pacifists and Just War Theorists by James P. Sterba 558
Against “Realism” by Michael Walzer 566
Can Terrorism Be Morally Justified? by Stephen Nathanson 577
The Case for Torturing the Ticking Bomb Terrorist by Alan M. Dershowitz 585
Cases for Analysis 594
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CHAPTER 18 Equality and Affirmative Action 597
Issue File: Background 597
CRITICAL THOUGHT: ARE LEGACIES RACIST? 599
Moral Theories 600
CRITICAL THOUGHT: ARE WHITES-ONLY SCHOLARSHIPS UNJUST? 601
QUICK REVIEW 602
Moral Arguments 603
Summary 605
READINGS
Reverse Discrimination as Unjustified by Lisa H. Newton 606
The Case against Affirmative Action by Louis P. Pojman 609
Affirmative Action and Quotas by Richard A. Wasserstrom 622
In Defense of Affirmative Action by Tom L. Beauchamp 625
Cases for Analysis 634
CHAPTER 19 Global Economic Justice 637
Issue File: Background 637
Moral Theories 639
VITAL STATS: THE PLANET’S POOR AND HUNGRY 639
Moral Arguments 641
QUICK REVIEW 643
Summary 643
READINGS
On Justice by John Rawls 644
The Entitlement Theory of Justice by Robert Nozick 651
Famine, Affluence, and Morality by Peter Singer 660
Lifeboat Ethics by Garrett Hardin 665
Cases for Analysis 672
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G L O S S A R Y 674
F U R T H E R R E A D I N G 678
A N S W E R S T O A R G U M E N T E X E R C I S E S 684
I N D E X 685
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This fourth edition of Doing Ethics brings another set of substantial improvements to a text that had already been greatly expanded and improved. The aims that have shaped this text from the begin- ning have not changed: to help students (1) see why ethics matters to society and to themselves; (2) understand core concepts (theories, principles, values, virtues, and the like); (3) be familiar with the background (scientific, legal, and otherwise) of contemporary moral problems; and (4) know how to apply critical reasoning to those problems—to assess moral judgments and principles, construct and evaluate moral arguments, and apply and cri- tique moral theories. This book, then, tries hard to provide the strongest possible support to teachers of applied ethics who want students, above all, to think for themselves and competently do what is often required of morally mature persons—that is, to do ethics.
These goals are reflected in the book’s extensive introductions to concepts, cases, and issues; its large collection of readings and exercises; and its chapter-by-chapter coverage of moral reasoning— perhaps the most thorough introduction to these skills available in an applied-ethics text. This latter theme gets systematic treatment in five chapters, threads prominently throughout all the others, and is reinforced everywhere by “Critical Thought” text boxes prompting students to apply critical thinking to real debates and cases. The point of all this is to help students not just to study ethics but to become fully involved in the ethical enterprise and the moral life.
